1
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Ngwa W, Ngoma T. Spillover benefits of workforce capacity building in radiotherapy. Lancet Oncol 2024:S1470-2045(24)00482-0. [PMID: 39362234 DOI: 10.1016/s1470-2045(24)00482-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2024] [Accepted: 08/22/2024] [Indexed: 10/05/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Wilfred Ngwa
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Molecular Radiation Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA.
| | - Twalib Ngoma
- Department of Clinical Oncology, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
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2
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Chow JCL, Ruda HE. Impact of Scattering Foil Composition on Electron Energy Distribution in a Clinical Linear Accelerator Modified for FLASH Radiotherapy: A Monte Carlo Study. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 17:3355. [PMID: 38998435 PMCID: PMC11243336 DOI: 10.3390/ma17133355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2024] [Revised: 07/03/2024] [Accepted: 07/05/2024] [Indexed: 07/14/2024]
Abstract
This study investigates how scattering foil materials and sampling holder placement affect electron energy distribution in electron beams from a modified medical linear accelerator for FLASH radiotherapy. We analyze electron energy spectra at various positions-ionization chamber, mirror, and jaw-to evaluate the impact of Cu, Pb-Cu, Pb, and Ta foils. Our findings show that close proximity to the source intensifies the dependence of electron energy distribution on foil material, enabling precise beam control through material selection. Monte Carlo simulations are effective for designing foils to achieve desired energy distributions. Moving the sampling holder farther from the source reduces foil material influence, promoting more uniform energy spreads, particularly in the 0.5-10 MeV range for 12 MeV electron beams. These insights emphasize the critical role of tailored material selection and sampling holder positioning in optimizing electron energy distribution and fluence intensity for FLASH radiotherapy research, benefiting both experimental design and clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- James C L Chow
- Radiation Medicine Program, Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, ON M5G 1X6, Canada
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 1P5, Canada
| | - Harry E Ruda
- Centre of Advance Nanotechnology, Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E4, Canada
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E4, Canada
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3
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Moreau M, Mao S, Ngwa U, Yasmin-Karim S, China D, Hooshangnejad H, Sforza D, Ding K, Li H, Rezaee M, Narang AK, Ngwa W. Democratizing FLASH Radiotherapy. Semin Radiat Oncol 2024; 34:344-350. [PMID: 38880543 PMCID: PMC11218907 DOI: 10.1016/j.semradonc.2024.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
FLASH radiotherapy (RT) is emerging as a potentially revolutionary advancement in cancer treatment, offering the potential to deliver RT at ultra-high dose rates (>40 Gy/s) while significantly reducing damage to healthy tissues. Democratizing FLASH RT by making this cutting-edge approach more accessible and affordable for healthcare systems worldwide would have a substantial impact in global health. Here, we review recent developments in FLASH RT and present perspective on further developments that could facilitate the democratizing of FLASH RT. These include upgrading and validating current technologies that can deliver and measure the FLASH radiation dose with high accuracy and precision, establishing a deeper mechanistic understanding of the FLASH effect, and optimizing dose delivery conditions and parameters for different types of tumors and normal tissues, such as the dose rate, dose fractionation, and beam quality for high efficacy. Furthermore, we examine the potential for democratizing FLASH radioimmunotherapy leveraging evidence that FLASH RT can make the tumor microenvironment more immunogenic, and parallel developments in nanomedicine or use of smart radiotherapy biomaterials for combining RT and immunotherapy. We conclude that the democratization of FLASH radiotherapy represents a major opportunity for concerted cross-disciplinary research collaborations with potential for tremendous impact in reducing radiotherapy disparities and extending the cancer moonshot globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Moreau
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Molecular Radiation Sciences, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD..
| | - Serena Mao
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Molecular Radiation Sciences, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD
| | - Uriel Ngwa
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Sayeda Yasmin-Karim
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, and Harvard Medical School, Boston MA
| | - Debarghya China
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD
| | - Hamed Hooshangnejad
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Molecular Radiation Sciences, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD
| | - Daniel Sforza
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Molecular Radiation Sciences, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD
| | - Kai Ding
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Molecular Radiation Sciences, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD
| | - Heng Li
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Molecular Radiation Sciences, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD
| | - Mohammad Rezaee
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Molecular Radiation Sciences, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD
| | - Amol K Narang
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Molecular Radiation Sciences, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD
| | - Wilfred Ngwa
- Department of Radiation Oncology and Molecular Radiation Sciences, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD
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4
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Das IJ, Khan AU, Dogan SK, Longo M. Grid/lattice therapy: consideration of small field dosimetry. Br J Radiol 2024; 97:1088-1098. [PMID: 38552328 PMCID: PMC11135801 DOI: 10.1093/bjr/tqae060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2024] [Revised: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024] Open
Abstract
Small-field dosimetry used in special procedures such as gamma knife, Cyberknife, Tomotherapy, IMRT, and VMAT has been in evolution after several radiation incidences with very significant (70%) errors due to poor understanding of the dosimetry. IAEA-TRS-483 and AAPM-TG-155 have provided comprehensive information on small-fields dosimetry in terms of code of practice and relative dosimetry. Data for various detectors and conditions have been elaborated. It turns out that with a suitable detectors dose measurement accuracy can be reasonably (±3%) achieved for 6 MV beams for fields >1×1 cm2. For grid therapy, even though the treatment is performed with small fields created by either customized blocks, multileaf collimator (MLC), or specialized devices, it is multiple small fields that creates combined treatment. Hence understanding the dosimetry in collection of holes of small field is a separate challenge that needs to be addressed. It is more critical to understand the scattering conditions from multiple holes that form the treatment grid fields. Scattering changes the beam energy (softer) and hence dosimetry protocol needs to be properly examined for having suitable dosimetric parameters. In lieu of beam parameter unavailability in physical grid devices, MLC-based forward and inverse planning is an alternative path for bulky tumours. Selection of detectors in small field measurement is critical and it is more critical in mixed beams created by scattering condition. Ramification of small field concept used in grid therapy along with major consideration of scattering condition is explored. Even though this review article is focussed mainly for dosimetry for low-energy megavoltage photon beam (6 MV) but similar procedures could be adopted for high energy beams. To eliminate small field issues, lattice therapy with the help of MLC is a preferrable choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indra J Das
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Northwest Memorial Hospital, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, United States
| | - Ahtesham Ullah Khan
- San Bortolo Hospital, Medical Physics Department, Viale F. Rodolfi 37, 36100 Vicenza, Italy
| | - Serpil K Dogan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Northwest Memorial Hospital, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, United States
| | - Mariaconcetta Longo
- San Bortolo Hospital, Medical Physics Department, Viale F. Rodolfi 37, 36100 Vicenza, Italy
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Chow JCL, Ruda HE. Mechanisms of Action in FLASH Radiotherapy: A Comprehensive Review of Physicochemical and Biological Processes on Cancerous and Normal Cells. Cells 2024; 13:835. [PMID: 38786057 PMCID: PMC11120005 DOI: 10.3390/cells13100835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2024] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 05/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The advent of FLASH radiotherapy (FLASH-RT) has brought forth a paradigm shift in cancer treatment, showcasing remarkable normal cell sparing effects with ultra-high dose rates (>40 Gy/s). This review delves into the multifaceted mechanisms underpinning the efficacy of FLASH effect, examining both physicochemical and biological hypotheses in cell biophysics. The physicochemical process encompasses oxygen depletion, reactive oxygen species, and free radical recombination. In parallel, the biological process explores the FLASH effect on the immune system and on blood vessels in treatment sites such as the brain, lung, gastrointestinal tract, skin, and subcutaneous tissue. This review investigated the selective targeting of cancer cells and the modulation of the tumor microenvironment through FLASH-RT. Examining these mechanisms, we explore the implications and challenges of integrating FLASH-RT into cancer treatment. The potential to spare normal cells, boost the immune response, and modify the tumor vasculature offers new therapeutic strategies. Despite progress in understanding FLASH-RT, this review highlights knowledge gaps, emphasizing the need for further research to optimize its clinical applications. The synthesis of physicochemical and biological insights serves as a comprehensive resource for cell biology, molecular biology, and biophysics researchers and clinicians navigating the evolution of FLASH-RT in cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- James C. L. Chow
- Radiation Medicine Program, Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, ON M5G 1X6, Canada
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 1P5, Canada
| | - Harry E. Ruda
- Centre of Advance Nanotechnology, Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E4, Canada;
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3E4, Canada
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Elsharkawi ASA, Elazab HA, Askar MA, Abdelrahman IY, Arafa AA, Gomma LR, Lo YL. Biocompatibility and radiosensitivity of a fiber optical-based dosimeter: biological applications. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2024; 15:3492-3506. [PMID: 38855686 PMCID: PMC11161350 DOI: 10.1364/boe.523849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2024] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
This study introduces a cutting-edge fiber-optic dosimetry (FOD) sensor designed for measuring radiation in biological settings. The accuracy and precision of dosimeters for small animals, particularly prolonged exposure to nonuniform radiation fields, are always challenging. A state-of-the-art in-vivo dosimeter utilizing glass-encapsulated Thermoluminescence cylindrical detector (TLD) was introduced. The FODs are implanted into the rat during a prolonged irradiation scenario involving 137Cs where the rat has the freedom to move within a heterogeneous radiation domain. The implantation surgery was verified with X-ray computed tomography (CT) in addition to biochemical and pathological tests to assess the biocompatibility of FOD in vivo. A versatile FOD is designed for industrial and medical fields, which demand accurate and resilient radiation dosimeters. The dose measurements are associated with precise two-dimensional (2D) radiation distribution imaging. Three cylindrical FODs and three standards TLD_100 for each rat were tested. The measurements of peak irradiation before and after exposure reveal greater stability and superior sensitivity when compared to standard thermo-luminescence detectors in an in-vivo animal test. To the best of our knowledge, FOD testing on live animals is presented for the first time in this paper. Regarding the safety and biocompatibility of FOD, no morphological signs with any kind of inflammation or sensitivity toward the FOD material have been remarked. Moreover, with the current FOD, there is no oedema between the epidermal, dermal, and subdermal sections at the site of implantation. The results also show the stable levels of white blood cells (lymphocytes, granulocytes, MID) as blood inflammatory markers before surgery and at the time of extraction of the implanted dosimeters, thus confirming the biocompatibility for each optical fiber cylinder dosimeter. As a result, the new dosimeters have excellent biocompatibility in living tissues and have 100% accurate reusability intensity of the delivered radiation doses compared to TLD_100 which demonstrated a 45% reduction in its intensity accuracy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adel S A Elsharkawi
- Department of Radiation Engineering, National Center for Radiation Research and Technology (NCRRT), Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority, Cairo 11787, Egypt
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Huda A Elazab
- Nuclear and Radiological Safety Research Center, Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority, Cairo 9621, Egypt
| | - Mostafa A Askar
- Radiation Biology Department, National Centre for Radiation Research and Technology (NCRRT), Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority (EAEA), Cairo 11787, Egypt
| | - Ibrahim Y Abdelrahman
- Radiation Biology Department, National Centre for Radiation Research and Technology (NCRRT), Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority (EAEA), Cairo 11787, Egypt
| | - Amany A Arafa
- Department of Radiation Engineering, National Center for Radiation Research and Technology (NCRRT), Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority, Cairo 11787, Egypt
| | - Lofty R Gomma
- Faculty of Engineering at Shoubra, Banha University, Cairo 11672, Egypt
| | - Yu-Lung Lo
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
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7
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Cengel KA, Kim MM, Diffenderfer ES, Busch TM. FLASH Radiotherapy: What Can FLASH's Ultra High Dose Rate Offer to the Treatment of Patients With Sarcoma? Semin Radiat Oncol 2024; 34:218-228. [PMID: 38508786 DOI: 10.1016/j.semradonc.2024.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
FLASH is an emerging treatment paradigm in radiotherapy (RT) that utilizes ultra-high dose rates (UHDR; >40 Gy)/s) of radiation delivery. Developing advances in technology support the delivery of UHDR using electron and proton systems, as well as some ion beam units (eg, carbon ions), while methods to achieve UHDR with photons are under investigation. The major advantage of FLASH RT is its ability to increase the therapeutic index for RT by shifting the dose response curve for normal tissue toxicity to higher doses. Numerous preclinical studies have been conducted to date on FLASH RT for murine sarcomas, alongside the investigation of its effects on relevant normal tissues of skin, muscle, and bone. The tumor control achieved by FLASH RT of sarcoma models is indistinguishable from that attained by treatment with standard RT to the same total dose. FLASH's high dose rates are able to mitigate the severity or incidence of RT side effects on normal tissues as evaluated by endpoints ranging from functional sparing to histological damage. Large animal studies and clinical trials of canine patients show evidence of skin sparing by FLASH vs. standard RT, but also caution against delivery of high single doses with FLASH that exceed those safely applied with standard RT. Also, a human clinical trial has shown that FLASH RT can be delivered safely to bone metastasis. Thus, data to date support continued investigations of clinical translation of FLASH RT for the treatment of patients with sarcoma. Toward this purpose, hypofractionated irradiation schemes are being investigated for FLASH effects on sarcoma and relevant normal tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith A Cengel
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania..
| | - Michele M Kim
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Eric S Diffenderfer
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Theresa M Busch
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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8
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Jiang X, Jiang X, Wu D, Xie W, Liu X, Zheng J. A pH-Sensitive Nanoparticle as Reactive Oxygen Species Amplifier to Regulate Tumor Microenvironment and Potentiate Tumor Radiotherapy. Int J Nanomedicine 2024; 19:709-725. [PMID: 38283195 PMCID: PMC10812755 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s436160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Radiotherapy is a widely used clinical tool for tumor treatment but can cause systemic toxicity if excessive radiation is administered. Although numerous nanoparticles have been developed as radiosensitizers to reduce the required dose of X-ray irradiation, they often have limitations, such as passive reliance on radiation-induced apoptosis in tumors, and little consider the unique tumor microenvironment that contributes radiotherapy resistance. Methods In this study, we developed and characterized a novel self-assembled nanoparticle containing dysprosium ion and manganese ion (Dy/Mn-P). We systematically investigated the potential of Dy/Mn-P nanoparticles (NPs) as a reactive oxygen species (ROS) amplifier and radiosensitizer to enhance radiation therapy and modulate the tumor microenvironment at the cellular level. Additionally, we evaluated the effect of Dy/Mn-P on the stimulator of interferon genes (STING), an innate immune signaling pathway. Results Physicochemical analysis demonstrated the prepared Dy/Mn-P NPs exhibited excellent dispersibility and stability, and degraded rapidly at lower pH values. Furthermore, Dy/Mn-P was internalized by cells and exhibited selective toxicity towards tumor cells compared to normal cells. Our findings also revealed that Dy/Mn-P NPs improved the tumor microenvironment and significantly increased ROS generation under ionizing radiation, resulting in a ~70% increase in ROS levels compared to radiation therapy alone. This enhanced ROS generation inhibited ~92% of cell clone formation and greatly contributed to cytoplasmic DNA exposure. Subsequently, the activation of the STING pathway was observed, leading to the secretion of pro-inflammatory immune factors and maturation of dendritic cells (DCs). Conclusion Our study demonstrates that Dy/Mn-P NPs can potentiate tumor radiotherapy by improving the tumor microenvironment and increasing endogenous ROS levels within the tumor. Furthermore, Dy/Mn-P can amplify the activation of the STING pathway during radiotherapy, thereby triggering an anti-tumor immune response. This novel approach has the potential to expand the application of radiotherapy in tumor treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomei Jiang
- Department of Dermatology, Liuzhou Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Liuzhou, 545001, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaohong Jiang
- Department of Pharmacy, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, People’s Republic of China
| | - Dongjie Wu
- Department of Dermatology, Liuzhou Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Liuzhou, 545001, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wanzhu Xie
- Department of Rehabilitation, Liuzhou Worker’s Hospital, Liuzhou, 545001, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiong Liu
- Department of Dermatology, Liuzhou Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Liuzhou, 545001, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jintao Zheng
- Department of Biotechnology and Food Engineering, Guangdong Technology Israel Institute of Technology, Shantou, 515063, People’s Republic of China
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Chukavin NN, Filippova KO, Ermakov AM, Karmanova EE, Popova NR, Anikina VA, Ivanova OS, Ivanov VK, Popov AL. Redox-Active Cerium Fluoride Nanoparticles Selectively Modulate Cellular Response against X-ray Irradiation In Vitro. Biomedicines 2023; 12:11. [PMID: 38275372 PMCID: PMC10813610 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12010011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Ionizing radiation-induced damage in cancer and normal cells leads to apoptosis and cell death, through the intracellular oxidative stress, DNA damage and disorders of their metabolism. Irradiation doses that do not lead to the death of tumor cells can result in the emergence of radioresistant clones of these cells due to the rearrangement of metabolism and the emergence of new mutations, including those in the genes responsible for DNA repair. The search for the substances capable of modulating the functioning of the tumor cell repair system is an urgent task. Here we analyzed the effect of cerium(III) fluoride nanoparticles (CeF3 NPs) on normal (human mesenchymal stem cells-hMSC) and cancer (MCF-7 line) human cells after X-ray radiation. CeF3 NPs effectively prevent the formation of hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radicals in an irradiated aqueous solution, showing pronounced antioxidant properties. CeF3 NPs are able to protect hMSC from radiation-induced proliferation arrest, increasing their viability and mitochondrial membrane potential, and, conversely, inducing the cell death of MCF-7 cancer cells, causing radiation-induced mitochondrial hyperpolarization. CeF3 NPs provided a significant decrease in the number of double-strand breaks (DSBs) in hMSC, while in MCF-7 cells the number of γ-H2AX foci dramatically increased in the presence of CeF3 4 h after irradiation. In the presence of CeF3 NPs, there was a tendency to modulate the expression of most analyzed genes associated with the development of intracellular oxidative stress, cell redox status and the DNA-repair system after X-ray irradiation. Cerium-containing nanoparticles are capable of providing selective protection of hMSC from radiation-induced injuries and are considered as a platform for the development of promising clinical radioprotectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikita N. Chukavin
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino 142290, Russia; (N.N.C.); (K.O.F.); (A.M.E.); (E.E.K.); (N.R.P.); (V.A.A.)
- Scientific and Educational Center, State University of Education, Moscow 105005, Russia
| | - Kristina O. Filippova
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino 142290, Russia; (N.N.C.); (K.O.F.); (A.M.E.); (E.E.K.); (N.R.P.); (V.A.A.)
| | - Artem M. Ermakov
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino 142290, Russia; (N.N.C.); (K.O.F.); (A.M.E.); (E.E.K.); (N.R.P.); (V.A.A.)
- Scientific and Educational Center, State University of Education, Moscow 105005, Russia
| | - Ekaterina E. Karmanova
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino 142290, Russia; (N.N.C.); (K.O.F.); (A.M.E.); (E.E.K.); (N.R.P.); (V.A.A.)
| | - Nelli R. Popova
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino 142290, Russia; (N.N.C.); (K.O.F.); (A.M.E.); (E.E.K.); (N.R.P.); (V.A.A.)
| | - Viktoriia A. Anikina
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino 142290, Russia; (N.N.C.); (K.O.F.); (A.M.E.); (E.E.K.); (N.R.P.); (V.A.A.)
| | - Olga S. Ivanova
- Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119071, Russia;
| | - Vladimir K. Ivanov
- Kurnakov Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 119991, Russia;
| | - Anton L. Popov
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino 142290, Russia; (N.N.C.); (K.O.F.); (A.M.E.); (E.E.K.); (N.R.P.); (V.A.A.)
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