Composite Catalyst of Palm Mill Fly Ash-Supported Calcium Oxide Obtained from Eggshells for Transesterification of Off-Grade Palm Oil

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Fractionation from Crude Palm Oil (CPO)

Biodiesel is a fuel derived from vegetable oil. One of the vegetable oils that can be used in the manufacture of biodiesel is Crude Palm Oil (CPO). High-quality biodiesel must have a low iodine number and a high oxidation stability. This can be achieved if CPO does not contain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). It follows that in order to produce high-quality biodiesel, palm oil that contains high saturated fatty acids but that does not contain PUFA is needed. Therefore, it is necessary to fractionate PUFA with saturated fatty acids (SFA) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA). The purpose of this study was to separate PUFA in the form of linoleic acid from CPO and to determine the best conditions in the separation process to produce fatty acids with low iodine numbers. Fractionation was carried out at temperatures of 30 °C and 35 °C, with an extraction time of 3 h and 4 h, and with ratios of CPO and solvent of 1:2 and 1:3 (v/v). The solvents used were n-heptane and DMSO (dimethyl sulfoxide). The results showed that linoleic acid could be separated from CPO using the fractionation method with the best conditions at a temperature of 35 °C, an extraction time of 4 h, a ratio of CPO and solvent of 1:3, an iodine number of 40.78766, and an oxidation stability of 19.03593 h. GC-MS analysis proved that the fractionated CPO did not contain linoleic acid. The lower the iodine number was, the higher the oxidation stability was.

A review of sustainable biodiesel production using biomass derived heterogeneous catalysts

The production of biodiesel through chemical production processes of transesterification reaction depends on suitable catalysts to hasten the chemical reactions. Therefore, the initial selection of catalysts is critical although it is also dependent on the quantity of free fatty acids in a given sample of oil. Earlier forms of biodiesel production processes relied on homogeneous catalysts, which have undesirable effects such as toxicity, high flammability, corrosion, by-products such as soap and glycerol, and high wastewater. Heterogeneous catalysts overcome most of these problems. Recent developments involve novel approaches using biomass and bio-waste resource derived heterogeneous catalysts. These catalysts are renewable, non-toxic, reusable, offer high catalytic activity and stability in both acidic and base conditions, and show high tolerance properties to water. This review work critically reviews biomass-based heterogeneous catalysts, especially those utilized in sustainable production of biofuel and biodiesel. This review examines the sustainability of these catalysts in literature in terms of small-scale laboratory and industrial applications in large-scale biodiesel and biofuel production. Furthermore, this work will critically review natural heterogeneous biomass waste and bio-waste catalysts in relation to upcoming nanotechnologies. Finally, this work will review the gaps identified in the literature for heterogeneous catalysts derived from biomass and other biocatalysts with a view to identifying future prospects for heterogeneous catalysts.

Bio-Derived Catalysts: A Current Trend of Catalysts Used in Biodiesel Production

Biodiesel is a promising alternative to fossil fuels and mainly produced from oils/fat through the (trans)esterification process. To enhance the reaction efficiency and simplify the production process, various catalysts have been introduced for biodiesel synthesis. Recently, the use of bio-derived catalysts has attracted more interest due to their high catalytic activity and ecofriendly properties. These catalysts include alkali catalysts, acid catalysts, and enzymes (biocatalysts), which are (bio)synthesized from various natural sources. This review summarizes the latest findings on these bio-derived catalysts, as well as their source and catalytic activity. The advantages and disadvantages of these catalysts are also discussed. These bio-based catalysts show a promising future and can be further used as a renewable catalyst for sustainable biodiesel production.