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Yasin G, Jasim SA, Raya I, Kzar HH, Abed Hussein B, Al-Gazally ME, Ahmed YM, Altimari US, Alkaim AF, Fakri Mustafa Y. Computational Study of Interaction and Removal of Benzopyran by Anatase Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticle. Polycycl Aromat Compd 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/10406638.2022.2091620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ghulam Yasin
- Botany, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Saade Abdalkareem Jasim
- Al-maarif University College Medical Laboratory Techniques Department, Al-Anbar-Ramadi, Iraq
| | - Indah Raya
- Departement of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Hasanuddin University, South Sulawesi, Indonesia
| | - Hamzah H. Kzar
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Al-Qasim Green University, Babylon, Iraq
| | | | | | | | | | - Ayad F. Alkaim
- College of Science for Women, University of Babylon, Babylon, Iraq
| | - Yasser Fakri Mustafa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Mosul, Mosul, Iraq
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2
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Theoretical studies on structure and dynamics of anatase TiO2 (101)/H2SO4/H2O interface in the early stage of titania sulfation. Struct Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11224-022-01946-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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3
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A DFTB-Based Molecular Dynamics Investigation of an Explicitly Solvated Anatase Nanoparticle. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12020780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We performed a self-consistent charge density functional tight-binding molecular dynamics (SCC DFTB-MD) simulation of an explicitly solvated anatase nanoparticle. From the 2 ps trajectory, we were able to calculate both dynamic and static properties, such as the energies of interaction and the formation of water layers at the surface, and compare them to the observed behaviour reported elsewhere. The high degree of agreement between our simulation and other sources, and the additional information gained from employing this methodology, highlights the oft-overlooked viability of DFTB-based methods for electronic structure calculations of large systems.
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4
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Shi X, Lin X, Luo R, Wu S, Li L, Zhao ZJ, Gong J. Dynamics of Heterogeneous Catalytic Processes at Operando Conditions. JACS AU 2021; 1:2100-2120. [PMID: 34977883 PMCID: PMC8715484 DOI: 10.1021/jacsau.1c00355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The rational design of high-performance catalysts is hindered by the lack of knowledge of the structures of active sites and the reaction pathways under reaction conditions, which can be ideally addressed by an in situ/operando characterization. Besides the experimental insights, a theoretical investigation that simulates reaction conditions-so-called operando modeling-is necessary for a plausible understanding of a working catalyst system at the atomic scale. However, there is still a huge gap between the current widely used computational model and the concept of operando modeling, which should be achieved through multiscale computational modeling. This Perspective describes various modeling approaches and machine learning techniques that step toward operando modeling, followed by selected experimental examples that present an operando understanding in the thermo- and electrocatalytic processes. At last, the remaining challenges in this area are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangcheng Shi
- Key
Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education,
School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative
Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tianjin 300072, China
- Joint
School of National University of Singapore and Tianjin University,
International Campus of Tianjin University, Fuzhou 350207, China
| | - Xiaoyun Lin
- Key
Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education,
School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative
Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Ran Luo
- Key
Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education,
School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative
Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Shican Wu
- Key
Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education,
School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative
Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Lulu Li
- Key
Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education,
School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative
Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Zhi-Jian Zhao
- Key
Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education,
School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative
Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Jinlong Gong
- Key
Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education,
School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- Collaborative
Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tianjin 300072, China
- Joint
School of National University of Singapore and Tianjin University,
International Campus of Tianjin University, Fuzhou 350207, China
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5
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Morales-García Á, Rhatigan S, Nolan M, Illas F. On the use of DFT+U to describe the electronic structure of TiO 2 nanoparticles: (TiO 2) 35 as a case study. J Chem Phys 2020; 152:244107. [PMID: 32610938 DOI: 10.1063/5.0012271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the main drawbacks in the density functional theory (DFT) formalism is the underestimation of the energy gaps in semiconducting materials. The combination of DFT with an explicit treatment of the electronic correlation with a Hubbard-like model, known as the DFT+U method, has been extensively applied to open up the energy gap in materials. Here, we introduce a systematic study where the selection of the U parameter is analyzed considering two different basis sets: plane-waves and numerical atomic orbitals (NAOs), together with different implementations for including U, to investigate the structural and electronic properties of a well-defined bipyramidal (TiO2)35 nanoparticle. This study reveals, as expected, that a certain U value can reproduce the experimental value for the energy gap. However, there is a high dependence on the choice of basis set and on the U parameter employed. The present study shows that the linear combination of the NAO basis functions, as implemented in Fritz Haber Institute ab initio molecular simulation (FHI-aims), requires, requires a lower U value than the simplified rotationally invariant approach, as implemented in the Vienna ab initio simulation package (VASP). Therefore, the transfer of U values between codes is unfeasible and not recommended, demanding initial benchmark studies for the property of interest as a reference to determine the appropriate value of U.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ángel Morales-García
- Departament de Ciència de Materials i Química Física & Institut de Química Teòrica i Computacional (IQTCUB), Universitat de Barcelona, c/Martí i Franquès 1-11, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Stephen Rhatigan
- Tyndall National Institute, University College Cork, Lee Maltings, Cork T12 R5CP, Ireland
| | - Michael Nolan
- Tyndall National Institute, University College Cork, Lee Maltings, Cork T12 R5CP, Ireland
| | - Francesc Illas
- Departament de Ciència de Materials i Química Física & Institut de Química Teòrica i Computacional (IQTCUB), Universitat de Barcelona, c/Martí i Franquès 1-11, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
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6
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Di Liberto G, Tosoni S, Pacchioni G. Charge Carriers Cascade in a Ternary TiO
2
/TiO
2
/ZnS Heterojunction: A DFT Study. ChemCatChem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201902351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Di Liberto
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei MaterialiUniversità degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca Via Roberto Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
| | - Sergio Tosoni
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei MaterialiUniversità degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca Via Roberto Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
| | - Gianfranco Pacchioni
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei MaterialiUniversità degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca Via Roberto Cozzi 55 20125 Milano Italy
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7
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Recent Advancements in the Understanding of the Surface Chemistry in TiO2 Photocatalysis. SURFACES 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/surfaces3010008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Surface chemistry plays a major role in photocatalytic and photoelectrochemical processes taking place with the participation of TiO2. The synthesis methods, surface characterizations, theoretical research methods, and hardware over the last decade generated opportunities for progress in the surface science of this photocatalyst. Very recently, attention was paid to the design of photocatalysts at the nanoscale level by adjusting the types of exposed surfaces and their ratio, the composition and the surface structure of nanoparticles, and that of individual surfaces. The current theoretical methods provide highly detailed designs that can be embodied experimentally. The present review article describes the progress in the surface science of TiO2 and TiO2-based photocatalysts obtained over the last three years. Such aspects including the properties of macro- and nano-scale surfaces, noble-metal-loaded surfaces, doping with Mg and S, intrinsic defects (oxygen vacancies), adsorption, and photoreactions are considered. The main focus of the article is on the anatase phase of TiO2.
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8
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Palko N, Potemkin V, Grishina M. Theoretical study of the surface structure of anatase nanoparticles: effect on dye adsorption and photovoltaic properties. NEW J CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/d0nj03213a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The properties of TiO2 can vary greatly, depending on the size and morphology of the particles used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadezhda Palko
- South Ural State University
- Laboratory of Computational Modeling of Drugs
- Russia
| | - Vladimir Potemkin
- South Ural State University
- Laboratory of Computational Modeling of Drugs
- Russia
| | - Maria Grishina
- South Ural State University
- Laboratory of Computational Modeling of Drugs
- Russia
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9
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Idriss H. The elusive photocatalytic water splitting reaction using sunlight on suspended nanoparticles: is there a way forward? Catal Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/c9cy01818b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
For many decades hydrogen production from water by photocatalytic methods has been pursued over a variety of semiconductor powder catalysts featuring many structures and compositions. The stoichiometric formation of molecular hydrogen and oxygen has stayed largely elusive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hicham Idriss
- Catalysis Department
- SABIC-Corporate Research, and Development (CRD) Center at KAUST
- Thuwal
- Saudi Arabia
- Department of Chemistry
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10
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Piler K, Bahrim C, Twagirayezu S, Benson TJ. Lattice disorders of TiO2 and their significance in the photocatalytic conversion of CO2. ADVANCES IN CATALYSIS 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.acat.2020.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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11
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Zhou X, Dong H. A Theoretical Perspective on Charge Separation and Transfer in Metal Oxide Photocatalysts for Water Splitting. ChemCatChem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201900567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhou
- College of Environment and Chemical EngineeringDalian University No. 10 Xuefu Street Dalian Economic Technological Development Zone Dalian 116622, Liaoning P.R. China
| | - Hao Dong
- School of Chemistry and Chemical EngineeringLiaoning Normal University No. 850 Huanghe Road Shahekou District Dalian 116029, Liaoning P.R. China
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12
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Di Liberto G, Tosoni S, Pacchioni G. Role of Heterojunction in Charge Carrier Separation in Coexposed Anatase (001)-(101) Surfaces. J Phys Chem Lett 2019; 10:2372-2377. [PMID: 31018090 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.9b00504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
A heterojunction made by coexposed anatase (001)-(101) surfaces is studied using an explicit atomistic model of the interface via density functional theory. High photoactivity for this system has been demonstrated recently. Usually, the nature of a semiconductor heterojunction is evaluated by looking at band edges of the separate, noninteracting units, thus neglecting interfacial effects. Our results show non-negligible structural and electronic effects occurring at the junction, but because of the canceling nature of these effects, the alignment of the bands is qualitatively similar for the real interface and for the separated, noninteracting fragments. We also show from first principles that upon light absorption and electron excitation, the junction promotes charge carrier separation via localization of holes at O ions of the (001) side and electrons at Ti ions of the (101) side of the junction. This hinders recombination and is most likely the reason for high photoactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Di Liberto
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei Materiali , Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca , Via Roberto Cozzi 55 , I-20125 Milano , Italy
| | - Sergio Tosoni
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei Materiali , Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca , Via Roberto Cozzi 55 , I-20125 Milano , Italy
| | - Gianfranco Pacchioni
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei Materiali , Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca , Via Roberto Cozzi 55 , I-20125 Milano , Italy
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13
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Morales-García Á, Macià Escatllar A, Illas F, Bromley ST. Understanding the interplay between size, morphology and energy gap in photoactive TiO 2 nanoparticles. NANOSCALE 2019; 11:9032-9041. [PMID: 31021336 DOI: 10.1039/c9nr00812h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Anatase TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) have the potential to photocatalyse water splitting using UV light, to thus provide hydrogen fuel in a clean and sustainable manner. Such NPs have optical gaps covering a small range of relatively high energy solar photons, giving rise to low photo-efficiencies. Although anatase NPs with 10-20 nm diameters thermodynamically prefer crystalline faceted morphologies, application of physico-chemical procedures can produce more rounded NPs with amorphous shells. Such engineered metastable core-shell NPs (so-called black TiO2 NPs) have reduced band gaps due to shell-induced band edge broadening, resulting in higher photoactivities. For <5 nm diameters, TiO2 NPs typically exhibit spherical-like NP morphologies, which also display enhanced photoactivity. For smaller NPs it is difficult to experimentally determine their thermodynamic stability and internal atomic structure, to help rationalise their higher photoactivities. Employing accurate electronic structure calculations, we establish the relative stability of spherical and faceted stoichiometric TiO2 NPs with 1-3.4 nm diameters. Mirroring experimental preparation, simulated thermal annealing is found to significantly stabilise relaxed spherical cut anatase NPs. We find that the smallest spherical NPs become amorphized by annealing, but, for diameters >2 nm, annealing yields NPs with anatase-cores and amorphous-shells. Like larger black TiO2 core-shell NPs, we confirm that our core-shell NPs are metastable relative to faceted anatase NPs and have significantly smaller optical gaps than faceted NPs. Our calculated gaps are in excellent agreement with experimental data, strongly supporting the validity of our NP models. Energy gap narrowing in these core-shell NPs is found to be due to broadening of valence band states induced by the amorphous shell, analogous to the mechanism proposed for black TiO2 NPs. Our stoichiometric NPs also show that this band narrowing effect does not require the disordered shells to be non-stoichiometric or for incorporation of other atom types. Instead, we find that this effect mainly arises from 4-coordinated Ti atoms in the amorphous shell. Our careful and systematic computational investigation, using NP models of unprecedented realism, thus provides direct confirmation that the enhanced photoactivity in small spherical TiO2 NP observed in experiment is due to the formation of metastable core-shell NPs with 4-coordinated Ti centres.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ángel Morales-García
- Departament de Ciència de Materials i Química Física & Institut de Química Teòrica i Computacional (IQTCUB), Universitat de Barcelona, c/Martí i Franquès 1-11, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
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14
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Hajinazar S, Sandoval ED, Cullo AJ, Kolmogorov AN. Multitribe evolutionary search for stable Cu-Pd-Ag nanoparticles using neural network models. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2019; 21:8729-8742. [PMID: 30968090 DOI: 10.1039/c9cp00837c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
We present an approach based on two bio-inspired algorithms to accelerate the identification of nanoparticle ground states. We show that a symbiotic co-evolution of nanoclusters across a range of sizes improves the search efficiency considerably, while a neural network constructed with a recently introduced stratified training scheme delivers an accurate description of interactions in multielement systems. The method's performance has been examined in extensive searches for stable elemental (30-80 atoms), binary (50, 55, and 80 atoms), and ternary (50, 55, and 80 atoms) Cu-Pd-Ag clusters. The best candidate structures identified with the neural network model have consistently lower energy at the density functional theory level compared with those found with traditional interatomic potentials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samad Hajinazar
- Department of Physics, Applied Physics and Astronomy, Binghamton University, State University of New York, PO Box 6000, Binghamton, New York 13902-6000, USA
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15
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Cuko A, Macià Escatllar A, Calatayud M, Bromley ST. Properties of hydrated TiO 2 and SiO 2 nanoclusters: dependence on size, temperature and water vapour pressure. NANOSCALE 2018; 10:21518-21532. [PMID: 30427364 DOI: 10.1039/c8nr07262k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Nanoscale titania (TiO2) and silica (SiO2) are massively produced technologically important nanomaterials used in a wide range of technological applications where nano-titania is the active component (e.g. water splitting, pollution remediation, self-cleaning coatings). Generally, these applications entail contact with water and a degree of hydration of these nano-oxides. Although the hydration of nano-silica has been fairly well studied, the corresponding level of microscopic understanding for nano-titania is severely lacking. Here, using accurate electronic structure calculations we perform a detailed and comprehensive study of the hydration of titania nanoclusters. Firstly, using global optimisation, we establish the most energetically stable structures of a set of (TiO2)M(H2O)N nanoclusters with sizes ranging through M = 4-16 and with N/M ratios of ≤ 1.0. Using this extensive dataset we investigate how the structures, energy gaps, and thermodynamic stabilities of these species depend on size, temperature and water vapour pressure. To provide a broader chemical context for our study we also provide this full set of data for the respective set of (SiO2)M(H2O)N nanoclusters which we use to compare and contrast their properties with those of nano-titania. Our broad systematic study thus provides a comparative and foundational reference study for a thorough understanding of how hydration affects the structure, energetics and properties of both nano-SiO2 and nano-TiO2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andi Cuko
- Departament de Ciència de Materials i Química Física & Institut de Química Teòrica i Computacional (IQTCUB), Universitat de Barcelona, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain.
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Abstract
Dating from the seminal work of Fujishima et al. [...]
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17
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Ougaard Dohn A, Selli D, Fazio G, Ferraro L, Mortensen JJ, Civalleri B, Di Valentin C. Interfacing CRYSTAL/AMBER to Optimize QM/MM Lennard⁻Jones Parameters for Water and to Study Solvation of TiO₂ Nanoparticles. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23112958. [PMID: 30428551 PMCID: PMC6278561 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23112958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Revised: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs) are regarded as good candidates for many technological applications, where their functional environment is often an aqueous solution. The correct description of metal oxide electronic structure is still a challenge for local and semilocal density functionals, whereas hybrid functional methods provide an improved description, and local atomic function-based codes such as CRYSTAL17 outperform plane wave codes when it comes to hybrid functional calculations. However, the computational cost of hybrids are still prohibitive for systems of real sizes, in a real environment. Therefore, we here present and critically assess the accuracy of our electrostatic embedding quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical (QM/MM) coupling between CRYSTAL17 and AMBER16, and demonstrate some of its capabilities via the case study of TiO2 NPs in water. First, we produced new Lennard–Jones (LJ) parameters that improve the accuracy of water–water interactions in the B3LYP/TIP3P coupling. We found that optimizing LJ parameters based on water tri- to deca-mer clusters provides a less overstructured QM/MM liquid water description than when fitting LJ parameters only based on the water dimer. Then, we applied our QM/MM coupling methodology to describe the interaction of a 1 nm wide multilayer of water surrounding a spherical TiO2 nanoparticle (NP). Optimizing the QM/MM water–water parameters was found to have little to no effect on the local NP properties, which provide insights into the range of influence that can be attributed to the LJ term in the QM/MM coupling. The effect of adding additional water in an MM fashion on the geometry optimized nanoparticle structure is small, but more evident effects are seen in its electronic properties. We also show that there is good transferability of existing QM/MM LJ parameters for organic molecules–water interactions to our QM/MM implementation, even though these parameters were obtained with a different QM code and QM/MM implementation, but with the same functional.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asmus Ougaard Dohn
- Faculty of Physical Sciences and Science Institute, University of Iceland, 107 Reykjavík, Iceland.
| | - Daniele Selli
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei Materiali, Università di Milano-Bicocca, via Cozzi 55, 20125 Milano, Italy.
| | - Gianluca Fazio
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei Materiali, Università di Milano-Bicocca, via Cozzi 55, 20125 Milano, Italy.
| | - Lorenzo Ferraro
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei Materiali, Università di Milano-Bicocca, via Cozzi 55, 20125 Milano, Italy.
| | - Jens Jørgen Mortensen
- CAMD, Department of Physics, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Bartolomeo Civalleri
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università di Torino and NIS Centre of Excellence, Via P. Giuria 7, I-10129 Torino, Italy.
| | - Cristiana Di Valentin
- Dipartimento di Scienza dei Materiali, Università di Milano-Bicocca, via Cozzi 55, 20125 Milano, Italy.
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