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Luongo M, Laurenziello P, Cesta G, Bochicchio AM, Omer LC, Falco G, Milone MR, Cibarelli F, Russi S, Laurino S. The molecular conversations of sarcomas: exosomal non-coding RNAs in tumor's biology and their translational prospects. Mol Cancer 2024; 23:172. [PMID: 39174949 PMCID: PMC11340101 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-024-02083-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2024] [Accepted: 08/13/2024] [Indexed: 08/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Exosomes mediate cell-to-cell crosstalk involving a variety of biomolecules through an intricate signaling network. In recent years, the pivotal role of exosomes and their non-coding RNAs cargo in the development and progression of several cancer types clearly emerged. In particular, tumor bulk and its microenvironment co-evolve through cellular communications where these nanosized extracellular vesicles are among the most relevant actors. Knowledge about the cellular, and molecular mechanisms involved in these communications will pave the way for novel exosome-based delivery of therapeutic RNAs as well as innovative prognostic/diagnostic tools. Despite the valuable therapeutic potential and clinical relevance of exosomes, their role on sarcoma has been vaguely reported because the rarity and high heterogeneity of this type of cancer. Here, we dissected the scientific literature to unravel the multifaceted role of exosomal non-coding RNAs as mediator of cell-to-cell communications in the sarcoma subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margherita Luongo
- Laboratory of Preclinical and Translational Research, IRCCS CROB Centro di Riferimento Oncologico della Basilicata, Rionero in Vulture (PZ), 85028, Italy
| | - Pasqualina Laurenziello
- Laboratory of Preclinical and Translational Research, IRCCS CROB Centro di Riferimento Oncologico della Basilicata, Rionero in Vulture (PZ), 85028, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Cesta
- Laboratory of Preclinical and Translational Research, IRCCS CROB Centro di Riferimento Oncologico della Basilicata, Rionero in Vulture (PZ), 85028, Italy
| | - Anna Maria Bochicchio
- Experimental Oncology Unit, IRCCS CROB Centro di Riferimento Oncologico della Basilicata, Rionero in Vulture (PZ), 85028, Italy
| | - Ludmila Carmen Omer
- Experimental Oncology Unit, IRCCS CROB Centro di Riferimento Oncologico della Basilicata, Rionero in Vulture (PZ), 85028, Italy
| | - Geppino Falco
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, 80126, Italy
| | | | | | - Sabino Russi
- Laboratory of Preclinical and Translational Research, IRCCS CROB Centro di Riferimento Oncologico della Basilicata, Rionero in Vulture (PZ), 85028, Italy.
| | - Simona Laurino
- Laboratory of Preclinical and Translational Research, IRCCS CROB Centro di Riferimento Oncologico della Basilicata, Rionero in Vulture (PZ), 85028, Italy
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2
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Singhto N, Pongphitcha P, Jinawath N, Hongeng S, Chutipongtanate S. Extracellular Vesicles for Childhood Cancer Liquid Biopsy. Cancers (Basel) 2024; 16:1681. [PMID: 38730633 PMCID: PMC11083250 DOI: 10.3390/cancers16091681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2024] [Revised: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Liquid biopsy involves the utilization of minimally invasive or noninvasive techniques to detect biomarkers in biofluids for disease diagnosis, monitoring, or guiding treatments. This approach is promising for the early diagnosis of childhood cancer, especially for brain tumors, where tissue biopsies are more challenging and cause late detection. Extracellular vesicles offer several characteristics that make them ideal resources for childhood cancer liquid biopsy. Extracellular vesicles are nanosized particles, primarily secreted by all cell types into body fluids such as blood and urine, and contain molecular cargos, i.e., lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids of original cells. Notably, the lipid bilayer-enclosed structure of extracellular vesicles protects their cargos from enzymatic degradation in the extracellular milieu. Proteins and nucleic acids of extracellular vesicles represent genetic alterations and molecular profiles of childhood cancer, thus serving as promising resources for precision medicine in cancer diagnosis, treatment monitoring, and prognosis prediction. This review evaluates the recent progress of extracellular vesicles as a liquid biopsy platform for various types of childhood cancer, discusses the mechanistic roles of molecular cargos in carcinogenesis and metastasis, and provides perspectives on extracellular vesicle-guided therapeutic intervention. Extracellular vesicle-based liquid biopsy for childhood cancer may ultimately contribute to improving patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nilubon Singhto
- Ramathibodi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
| | - Pongpak Pongphitcha
- Bangkok Child Health Center, Bangkok Hospital Headquarters, Bangkok 10130, Thailand;
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
| | - Natini Jinawath
- Program in Translational Medicine, Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
- Chakri Naruebodindra Medical Institute, Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Samut Prakan 10540, Thailand
- Integrative Computational Biosciences Center, Mahidol University, Nakon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Suradej Hongeng
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
| | - Somchai Chutipongtanate
- MILCH and Novel Therapeutics Laboratory, Division of Epidemiology, Department of Environmental and Public Health Sciences, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
- Extracellular Vesicle Working Group, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA
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3
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Ruzanov P, Evdokimova V, Pachva MC, Minkovich A, Zhang Z, Langman S, Gassmann H, Thiel U, Orlic-Milacic M, Zaidi SH, Peltekova V, Heisler LE, Sharma M, Cox ME, McKee TD, Zaidi M, Lapouble E, McPherson JD, Delattre O, Radvanyi L, Burdach SE, Stein LD, Sorensen PH. Oncogenic ETS fusions promote DNA damage and proinflammatory responses via pericentromeric RNAs in extracellular vesicles. J Clin Invest 2024; 134:e169470. [PMID: 38530366 PMCID: PMC11060741 DOI: 10.1172/jci169470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Aberrant expression of the E26 transformation-specific (ETS) transcription factors characterizes numerous human malignancies. Many of these proteins, including EWS:FLI1 and EWS:ERG fusions in Ewing sarcoma (EwS) and TMPRSS2:ERG in prostate cancer (PCa), drive oncogenic programs via binding to GGAA repeats. We report here that both EWS:FLI1 and ERG bind and transcriptionally activate GGAA-rich pericentromeric heterochromatin. The respective pathogen-like HSAT2 and HSAT3 RNAs, together with LINE, SINE, ERV, and other repeat transcripts, are expressed in EwS and PCa tumors, secreted in extracellular vesicles (EVs), and are highly elevated in plasma of patients with EwS with metastatic disease. High human satellite 2 and 3 (HSAT2,3) levels in EWS:FLI1- or ERG-expressing cells and tumors were associated with induction of G2/M checkpoint, mitotic spindle, and DNA damage programs. These programs were also activated in EwS EV-treated fibroblasts, coincident with accumulation of HSAT2,3 RNAs, proinflammatory responses, mitotic defects, and senescence. Mechanistically, HSAT2,3-enriched cancer EVs induced cGAS-TBK1 innate immune signaling and formation of cytosolic granules positive for double-strand RNAs, RNA-DNA, and cGAS. Hence, aberrantly expressed ETS proteins derepress pericentromeric heterochromatin, yielding pathogenic RNAs that transmit genotoxic stress and inflammation to local and distant sites. Monitoring HSAT2,3 plasma levels and preventing their dissemination may thus improve therapeutic strategies and blood-based diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Ruzanov
- Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Manideep C. Pachva
- Department of Molecular Oncology, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre and
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Alon Minkovich
- Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Zhenbo Zhang
- Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sofya Langman
- Department of Molecular Oncology, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre and
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Hendrik Gassmann
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Cancer Research Center, Kinderklinik München Schwabing, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Uwe Thiel
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Cancer Research Center, Kinderklinik München Schwabing, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Syed H. Zaidi
- Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Vanya Peltekova
- Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Manju Sharma
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Michael E. Cox
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Trevor D. McKee
- STTARR Innovation Centre, Radiation Medicine Program, Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Pathomics Inc., Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mark Zaidi
- Pathomics Inc., Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Eve Lapouble
- Unité Génétique Somatique (UGS), Institut Curie, Centre Hospitalier Paris, France
| | - John D. McPherson
- Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California Davis Comprehensive Cancer Center, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Olivier Delattre
- Unité Génétique Somatique (UGS), Institut Curie, Centre Hospitalier Paris, France
- Diversity and Plasticity of Childhood tumors, INSERM U830, Institut Curie Research Center, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Laszlo Radvanyi
- Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Stefan E.G. Burdach
- Department of Molecular Oncology, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre and
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Cancer Research Center, Kinderklinik München Schwabing, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- CCC München Comprehensive Cancer Center, DKTK German Cancer Consortium, Munich, Germany
- Institute of Pathology, Translation Pediatric Cancer Research Action, School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Lincoln D. Stein
- Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Poul H. Sorensen
- Department of Molecular Oncology, British Columbia Cancer Research Centre and
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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Wong C, Stoilova I, Gazeau F, Herbeuval JP, Fourniols T. Mesenchymal stromal cell derived extracellular vesicles as a therapeutic tool: immune regulation, MSC priming, and applications to SLE. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1355845. [PMID: 38390327 PMCID: PMC10881725 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1355845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by a dysfunction of the immune system. Mesenchymal stromal cell (MSCs) derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanometer-sized particles carrying a diverse range of bioactive molecules, such as proteins, miRNAs, and lipids. Despite the methodological disparities, recent works on MSC-EVs have highlighted their broad immunosuppressive effect, thus driving forwards the potential of MSC-EVs in the treatment of chronic diseases. Nonetheless, their mechanism of action is still unclear, and better understanding is needed for clinical application. Therefore, we describe in this review the diverse range of bioactive molecules mediating their immunomodulatory effect, the techniques and possibilities for enhancing their immune activity, and finally the potential application to SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christophe Wong
- EVerZom, Paris, France
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 8601, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Chemistry and Biology, Modeling and Immunology for Therapy (CBMIT), Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Ivana Stoilova
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 8601, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Chemistry and Biology, Modeling and Immunology for Therapy (CBMIT), Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Florence Gazeau
- Matière et Systèmes Complexes (MSC) UMR CNRS 7057, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Philippe Herbeuval
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) 8601, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
- Chemistry and Biology, Modeling and Immunology for Therapy (CBMIT), Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
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Manara MC, Manferdini C, Cristalli C, Carrabotta M, Santi S, De Feo A, Caldoni G, Pasello M, Landuzzi L, Lollini PL, Salamanna F, Dominici S, Fiori V, Magnani M, Lisignoli G, Scotlandi K. Engagement of CD99 Activates Distinct Programs in Ewing Sarcoma and Macrophages. Cancer Immunol Res 2024; 12:247-260. [PMID: 38051221 PMCID: PMC10835215 DOI: 10.1158/2326-6066.cir-23-0440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 09/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023]
Abstract
Ewing sarcoma (EWS) is the second most common pediatric bone tumor. The EWS tumor microenvironment is largely recognized as immune-cold, with macrophages being the most abundant immune cells and their presence associated with worse patient prognosis. Expression of CD99 is a hallmark of EWS cells, and its targeting induces inhibition of EWS tumor growth through a poorly understood mechanism. In this study, we analyzed CD99 expression and functions on macrophages and investigated whether the concomitant targeting of CD99 on both tumor and macrophages could explain the inhibitory effect of this approach against EWS. Targeting CD99 on EWS cells downregulated expression of the "don't eat-me" CD47 molecule but increased levels of the "eat-me" phosphatidyl serine and calreticulin molecules on the outer leaflet of the tumor cell membrane, triggering phagocytosis and digestion of EWS cells by macrophages. In addition, CD99 ligation induced reprogramming of undifferentiated M0 macrophages and M2-like macrophages toward the inflammatory M1-like phenotype. These events resulted in the inhibition of EWS tumor growth. Thus, this study reveals what we believe to be a previously unrecognized function of CD99, which engenders a virtuous circle that delivers intrinsic cell death signals to EWS cells, favors tumor cell phagocytosis by macrophages, and promotes the expression of various molecules and cytokines, which are pro-inflammatory and usually associated with tumor regression. This raises the possibility that CD99 may be involved in boosting the antitumor activity of macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Cristina Manara
- Laboratory of Experimental Oncology, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
| | - Cristina Manferdini
- Laboratorio di Immunoreumatologia e Rigenerazione Tissutale, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
| | - Camilla Cristalli
- Laboratory of Experimental Oncology, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marianna Carrabotta
- Laboratory of Experimental Oncology, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
| | - Spartaco Santi
- CNR Institute of Molecular Genetics "Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza", Unit of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
| | - Alessandra De Feo
- Laboratory of Experimental Oncology, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giulia Caldoni
- Laboratory of Experimental Oncology, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
| | - Michela Pasello
- Laboratory of Experimental Oncology, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
| | - Lorena Landuzzi
- Laboratory of Experimental Oncology, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
| | - Pier-Luigi Lollini
- Laboratory of Immunology and Biology of Metastasis, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Francesca Salamanna
- Surgical Sciences and Technologies, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
| | | | | | - Mauro Magnani
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino "Carlo Bo", Urbino, Italy
| | - Gina Lisignoli
- Laboratorio di Immunoreumatologia e Rigenerazione Tissutale, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
| | - Katia Scotlandi
- Laboratory of Experimental Oncology, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
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Schober SJ, Thiede M, Gassmann H, von Ofen AJ, Knoch P, Eck J, Prexler C, Kordass-Wally C, Hauer J, Burdach S, Holm PS, Thiel U. TCR-transgenic T cells and YB-1-based oncolytic virotherapy improve survival in a preclinical Ewing sarcoma xenograft mouse model. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1330868. [PMID: 38318175 PMCID: PMC10839048 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1330868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Ewing sarcoma (EwS) is an aggressive and highly metastatic bone and soft tissue tumor in pediatric patients and young adults. Cure rates are low when patients present with metastatic or relapsed disease. Therefore, innovative therapy approaches are urgently needed. Cellular- and oncolytic virus-based immunotherapies are on the rise for solid cancers. Methods Here, we assess the combination of EwS tumor-associated antigen CHM1319-specific TCR-transgenic CD8+ T cells and the YB-1-driven (i.e. E1A13S-deleted) oncolytic adenovirus XVir-N-31 in vitro and in a xenograft mouse model for antitumor activity and immunostimulatory properties. Results In vitro both approaches specifically kill EwS cell lines in a synergistic manner over controls. This effect was confirmed in vivo, with increased survival using the combination therapy. Further in vitro analyses of immunogenic cell death and antigen presentation confirmed immunostimulatory properties of virus-infected EwS tumor cells. As dendritic cell maturation was also increased by XVir-N-31, we observed superior proliferation of CHM1319-specific TCR-transgenic CD8+ T cells only in virus-tested conditions, emphasizing the superior immune-activating potential of XVir-N-31. Conclusion Our data prove synergistic antitumor effects in vitro and superior tumor control in a preclinical xenograft setting. Combination strategies of EwS-redirected T cells and YB-1-driven virotherapy are a highly promising immunotherapeutic approach for EwS and warrant further evaluation in a clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian J. Schober
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Cancer Research Center, Kinderklinik München Schwabing, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Melanie Thiede
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Cancer Research Center, Kinderklinik München Schwabing, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Hendrik Gassmann
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Cancer Research Center, Kinderklinik München Schwabing, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Anna Josefine von Ofen
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Cancer Research Center, Kinderklinik München Schwabing, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Pia Knoch
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Cancer Research Center, Kinderklinik München Schwabing, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Jennifer Eck
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Cancer Research Center, Kinderklinik München Schwabing, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Carolin Prexler
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Cancer Research Center, Kinderklinik München Schwabing, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Corazon Kordass-Wally
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Cancer Research Center, Kinderklinik München Schwabing, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Julia Hauer
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Cancer Research Center, Kinderklinik München Schwabing, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Stefan Burdach
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Cancer Research Center, Kinderklinik München Schwabing, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- Institute of Pathology, Klinikum rechts der Isar, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Per Sonne Holm
- Department of Urology, Klinikum rechts der Isar, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Medical University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Uwe Thiel
- Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Cancer Research Center, Kinderklinik München Schwabing, TUM School of Medicine and Health, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
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Li R, Zhou Y, Zhang M, Xie R, Duan N, Liu H, Qin Y, Ma J, Li Z, Ye P, Wang W, Wang X. Oral squamous cell carcinoma-derived EVs promote tumor progression by regulating inflammatory cytokines and the IL-17A-induced signaling pathway. Int Immunopharmacol 2023; 118:110094. [PMID: 37030119 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2023.110094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2023] [Revised: 03/12/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inflammatory cytokines in the tumor microenvironment (TME) contribute to tumor growth, proliferation, and invasion, and tumor-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) act as critical "messengers" of communication in the tumor microenvironment. The effects of EVs derived from oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cells on tumor progression and the inflammatory microenvironment are still unclear. Our study aims to investigate the role of OSCC-derived EVs in tumor progression, the imbalanced TME, and immunosuppression and their effect on the IL-17A-induced signaling pathway. METHODS EVs were isolated from the supernatant of a mouse OSCC cell line, SCC7. The effects of SCC7-EVs and the EV release-specific inhibitor GW4869 on the proliferation and migration of SCC7 cells were investigated in vitro by using CCK-8 and scratch wound healing assays. RT-qPCR and ELISA were performed to examine the alterations in cytokine levels. Then, a mouse xenograft model of OSCC was established by submucosal injection of SCC7 cells with or without SCC7-EV and GW4869 treatment. The effects of GW4869 and SCC7-EVs on xenograft tumor proliferation and invasion were investigated by tumor volume determination and histopathological examination. ELISA was used to investigate the changes in serum cytokine levels. Immunohistochemistry was adopted to analyze the alterations in the levels of inflammatory cytokines, immune factors, and crucial molecules in the IL-17A signaling pathway. RESULTS SCC7-derived EVs increased the supernatant and serum levels of IL-17A, IL-10, IL-1β, and PD-L1, while GW4869 decreased those of TNF-α and IFN-γ. SCC7-EV treatment significantly increased xenograft tumor growth and invasion in mice but resulted in little liquefactive necrosis in tumors. However, GW4869 treatment significantly inhibited xenograft tumor growth but resulted in more liquefactive necrosis. SCC7-derived EVs decreased the expression level of PTPN2, suppressing the immune responses of CD8 + T cells in vivo. Moreover, SCC7-EV treatment significantly enhanced the tumor expression levels of crucial molecules in the IL-17A pathway, including IL-17A, TRAF6 and c-FOS, whereas GW4869 treatment significantly reduced those levels in tumor tissues. CONCLUSION Our results indicated that OSCC-derived EVs can promote tumor progression by altering the TME, causing an inflammatory cytokine imbalance, inducing immunosuppression, and contributing to overactivation of the IL-17A-induced signaling pathway. Our study might provide novel insights into the role of OSCC-derived EVs in tumor biological behavior and immune dysregulation.
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8
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Turaga SM, Sardiu ME, Vishwakarma V, Mitra A, Bantis LE, Madan R, Merchant ML, Klein JB, Samuel G, Godwin AK. Identification of small extracellular vesicle protein biomarkers for pediatric Ewing Sarcoma. Front Mol Biosci 2023; 10:1138594. [PMID: 37122563 PMCID: PMC10140755 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2023.1138594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Ewing Sarcoma (EWS) is the second most common osseous malignancy in children and young adults after osteosarcoma, while it is the fifth common osseous malignancy within adult age population. The clinical presentation of EWS is quite often non-specific, with the most common symptoms at presentation consisting of pain, swelling or general discomfort. The dearth of clinically relevant diagnostic or predictive biomarkers continues to remain a pressing clinical challenge. Identification of tumor specific biomarkers can lend towards an early diagnosis, expedited initiation of therapy, monitoring of therapeutic response, and early detection of recurrence of disease. We carried-out a complex analysis of cell lines and cell line derived small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) using label-free-based Quantitative Proteomic Profiling with an intent to determine shared and distinct features of these tumor cells and their respective sEVs. We analyzed EWS cells with different EWS-ETS fusions (EWS-FLI1 type I, II, and III and EWS-ERG) and their corresponding sEVs. Non-EWS controls included osteosarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, and benign cells, i.e., osteoid osteoma and mesenchymal stem cells. Proteomic profiling identified new shared markers between cells and their corresponding cell-derived sEVs and markers which were exclusively enriched in EWS-derived sEVs. These exo-biomarkers identified were validated by in silico approaches of publicly available protein databases and by capillary electrophoresis based western analysis (Wes). Here, we identified a protein biomarker named UGT3A2 and found its expression highly specific to EWS cells and their sEVs compared to control samples. Clinical validation of UGT3A2 expression in patient tumor tissues and plasma derived sEV samples demonstrated its specificity to EWS, indicating its potential as a EWS biomarker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumya M. Turaga
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
| | - Mihaela E. Sardiu
- Department of Biostatistics and Data Science, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
- Kansas Institute for Precision Medicine, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
- University of Kansas Cancer Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
| | - Vikalp Vishwakarma
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
| | - Amrita Mitra
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
| | - Leonidas E. Bantis
- Department of Biostatistics and Data Science, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
| | - Rashna Madan
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
| | - Michael L. Merchant
- Clinical Proteomics Laboratory, Department of Medicine, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, United States
| | - Jon B. Klein
- Robley Rex Veterans Administration Medical Center, Louisville, KY, United States
| | - Glenson Samuel
- University of Kansas Cancer Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
- Division of Pediatric Hematology Oncology and Bone Marrow Transplantation, Children’s Mercy-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, United States
| | - Andrew K. Godwin
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
- Kansas Institute for Precision Medicine, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
- University of Kansas Cancer Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
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Agnoletto C, Pignochino Y, Caruso C, Garofalo C. Exosome-Based Liquid Biopsy Approaches in Bone and Soft Tissue Sarcomas: Review of the Literature, Prospectives, and Hopes for Clinical Application. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24065159. [PMID: 36982236 PMCID: PMC10048895 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24065159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The knowledge of exosome impact on sarcoma development and progression has been implemented in preclinical studies thanks to technological advances in exosome isolation. Moreover, the clinical relevance of liquid biopsy is well established in early diagnosis, prognosis prediction, tumor burden assessment, therapeutic responsiveness, and recurrence monitoring of tumors. In this review, we aimed to comprehensively summarize the existing literature pointing out the clinical relevance of detecting exosomes in liquid biopsy from sarcoma patients. Presently, the clinical utility of liquid biopsy based on exosomes in patients affected by sarcoma is under debate. The present manuscript collects evidence on the clinical impact of exosome detection in circulation of sarcoma patients. The majority of these data are not conclusive and the relevance of liquid biopsy-based approaches in some types of sarcoma is still insufficient. Nevertheless, the utility of circulating exosomes in precision medicine clearly emerged and further validation in larger and homogeneous cohorts of sarcoma patients is clearly needed, requiring collaborative projects between clinicians and translational researchers for these rare cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ymera Pignochino
- Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Torino, 10043 Torino, Italy
- Candiolo Cancer Instute, FPO-IRCCS, 10060 Torino, Italy
| | - Chiara Caruso
- Veneto Institute of Oncology IOV-IRCCS, 35128 Padua, Italy
| | - Cecilia Garofalo
- Advanced Translational Research Laboratory, Immunology and Molecular Oncology Diagnostic Unit, Veneto Institute of Oncology IOV-IRCCS, 35127 Padua, Italy
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Anderson PM, Tu ZJ, Kilpatrick SE, Trucco M, Hanna R, Chan T. Routine EWS Fusion Analysis in the Oncology Clinic to Identify Cancer-Specific Peptide Sequence Patterns That Span Breakpoints in Ewing Sarcoma and DSRCT. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15051623. [PMID: 36900411 PMCID: PMC10001040 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15051623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: EWS fusion genes are associated with Ewing sarcoma and other Ewing family tumors including desmoplastic small round tumor, DSRCT. We utilize a clinical genomics workflow to reveal real-world frequencies of EWS fusion events, cataloging events that are similar, or divergent at the EWS breakpoint. (2) Methods: EWS fusion events from our next-generation sequencing panel (NGS) samples were first sorted by breakpoint or fusion junctions to map out the frequency of breakpoints. Fusion results were illustrated as in-frame fusion peptides involving EWS and a partner gene. (3) Results: From 2471 patient pool samples for fusion analysis at the Cleveland Clinic Molecular Pathology Laboratory, we identified 182 fusion samples evolved with the EWS gene. They are clustered in several breakpoints: chr22:29683123 (65.9%), and chr22:29688595 (2.7%). About 3/4 of Ewing sarcoma and DSRCT tumors have an identical EWS breakpoint motif at Exon 7 (SQQSSSYGQQ-) fused to a specific part of FLI1 (NPSYDSVRRG or-SSLLAYNTSS), ERG (NLPYEPPRRS), FEV (NPVGDGLFKD) or WT1 (SEKPYQCDFK). Our method also worked with Caris transcriptome data, too. Our primary clinical utility is to use this information to identify neoantigens for therapeutic purposes. (4) Conclusions and future perspectives: our method allows interpretation of what peptides result from the in-frame translation of EWS fusion junctions. These sequences, coupled with HLA-peptide binding data, are used to identify potential sequences of cancer-specific immunogenic peptides for Ewing sarcoma or DSRCT patients. This information may also be useful for immune monitoring (e.g., circulating T-cells with fusion-peptide specificity) to detect vaccine candidates, responses, or residual disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter M. Anderson
- Pediatric Hematology and Bone Marrow Transplant, Pediatric and Taussig Cancer Institutes, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-216-308-2706
| | - Zheng Jin Tu
- Bioinformatics, Molecular Pathology and Cytogenomics, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Scott E. Kilpatrick
- Orthopedic Pathology and Center for ePathology, Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Matteo Trucco
- Pediatric Hematology and Bone Marrow Transplant, Pediatric and Taussig Cancer Institutes, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Rabi Hanna
- Pediatric Hematology and Bone Marrow Transplant, Pediatric and Taussig Cancer Institutes, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Timothy Chan
- Center for Immuno-Oncology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Taussig Cancer Institute and Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
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11
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Ye H, Tan L, Tu C, Min L. Exosomes in sarcoma: Prospects for clinical applications. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2023; 181:103895. [PMID: 36481305 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2022.103895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Sarcoma is a group of rare and heterogeneous mesenchymal tumors, prone to late diagnosis and poor prognosis. Exosomes are cell-derived small extracellular vesicles found in most body fluids and contain nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and other molecules. Qualitative and quantitative changes of exosomes and the contents are associated with sarcoma progression, exhibiting their potential as biomarkers. Exosomes possess the capacity of evading immune responses, bioactivity for trafficking, tumor tropism, and lesion residence. Thus, exosomes could be engineered as tumor-specific vehicles in drugs and RNA delivery systems. Exosomes might also serve as therapeutic targets in targeted therapy and immunotherapy and be involved in chemotherapy resistance. Here, we provide a comprehensive summary of exosome applications in liquid biopsy-based diagnosis and explore their implications in the delivery system, targeted therapy, and chemotherapy resistance of sarcoma. Moreover, challenges in exosome clinical applications are raised and some future research directions are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huali Ye
- West China Hospital, West China School of Medicine, Sichuan University, Guoxue Xiang No. 37, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Linyun Tan
- Orthopaedic Research Institute, Department of Orthopaedics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Guoxue Xiang No. 37, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Chongqi Tu
- Orthopaedic Research Institute, Department of Orthopaedics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Guoxue Xiang No. 37, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Li Min
- Orthopaedic Research Institute, Department of Orthopaedics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Guoxue Xiang No. 37, Chengdu 610041, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.
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12
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Wang P, Dong S, Liu F, Liu A, Wang Z. MicroRNA-140-5p shuttled by microglia-derived extracellular vesicles attenuates subarachnoid hemorrhage-induced microglia activation and inflammatory response via MMD downregulation. Exp Neurol 2023; 359:114265. [PMID: 36336031 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2022.114265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND It is documented that microglia-secreted extracellular vesicles (microglia-EVs) exert neuroprotection which is important following subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). Herein, we focused on the mechanism of microglia-EVs harboring microRNA-140-5p (miR-140-5p) in SAH development. METHODS After the successful establishment of SAH rats, neurological function was evaluated, and behaviors were observed. Serum inflammatory factors (IL-1β and TNF-α) were quantified by ELISA, followed by the detection of microglial polarization by immunofluorescence. The relationship between miR-140-5p and monocyte to macrophage differentiation-associated (MMD) was evaluated using luciferase assay. Following the extraction of microglia and microglia-EVs, the transferring of miR-140-5p by microglia-EVs was assessed by co-culture experiments. SAH rats were treated with the EVs sourced from microglia overexpressing miR-140-5p (microglia-EVs-miR-140-5p) or EVs sourced from miR-140-5p-deficient microglia (microglia-EVs-miR-140-5p inhibitor) for in vivo effect assessment. RESULTS Microglia-EVs inhibited microglia activation and secretion of TNF-α and IL-1β by delivering miR-140-5p. Microglia-EVs could transmit miR-140-5p into microglia. Furthermore, microglia-EVs-miR-140-5p reduced the expression of its target MMD, resulting in blocked inflammatory response and activation of microglia in SAH rats by disrupting the PI3K/AKT and Erk1/2 signaling. CONCLUSION In summary, microglia-EVs transmitted miR-140-5p into microglia to downregulate MMD and finally contributed to neuroprotection in SAH rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pinyan Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410013, PR China
| | - Siyuan Dong
- Department of Neurosurgery, the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410013, PR China
| | - Fei Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410013, PR China; Department of Neurosurgery, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Zhuhai 519000, PR China.
| | - Aihua Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410013, PR China; Beijing Neurosurgical Institute, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100070, PR China.
| | - Zhifei Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, the Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410013, PR China.
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Current State of Immunotherapy and Mechanisms of Immune Evasion in Ewing Sarcoma and Osteosarcoma. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 15:cancers15010272. [PMID: 36612267 PMCID: PMC9818129 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15010272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
We argue here that in many ways, Ewing sarcoma (EwS) is a unique tumor entity and yet, it shares many commonalities with other immunologically cold solid malignancies. From the historical perspective, EwS, osteosarcoma (OS) and other bone and soft-tissue sarcomas were the first types of tumors treated with the immunotherapy approach: more than 100 years ago American surgeon William B. Coley injected his patients with a mixture of heat-inactivated bacteria, achieving survival rates apparently higher than with surgery alone. In contrast to OS which exhibits recurrent somatic copy-number alterations, EwS possesses one of the lowest mutation rates among cancers, being driven by a single oncogenic fusion protein, most frequently EWS-FLI1. In spite these differences, both EwS and OS are allied with immune tolerance and low immunogenicity. We discuss here the potential mechanisms of immune escape in these tumors, including low representation of tumor-specific antigens, low expression levels of MHC-I antigen-presenting molecules, accumulation of immunosuppressive M2 macrophages and myeloid proinflammatory cells, and release of extracellular vesicles (EVs) which are capable of reprogramming host cells in the tumor microenvironment and systemic circulation. We also discuss the vulnerabilities of EwS and OS and potential novel strategies for their targeting.
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Wang S, Sun J, Dastgheyb RM, Li Z. Tumor-derived extracellular vesicles modulate innate immune responses to affect tumor progression. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1045624. [PMID: 36405712 PMCID: PMC9667034 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1045624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 04/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Immune cells are capable of influencing tumor progression in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Meanwhile, one mechanism by which tumor modulate immune cells function is through extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are cell-derived extracellular membrane vesicles. EVs can act as mediators of intercellular communication and can deliver nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and other signaling molecules between cells. In recent years, studies have found that EVs play a crucial role in the communication between tumor cells and immune cells. Innate immunity is the first-line response of the immune system against tumor progression. Therefore, tumor cell-derived EVs (TDEVs) which modulate the functional change of innate immune cells serve important functions in the context of tumor progression. Emerging evidence has shown that TDEVs dually enhance or suppress innate immunity through various pathways. This review aims to summarize the influence of TDEVs on macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils, and natural killer cells. We also summarize their further effects on the progression of tumors, which may provide new ideas for developing novel tumor therapies targeting EVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siqi Wang
- Scientific Research Centre, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
- School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jiaxin Sun
- Scientific Research Centre, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
- School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Raha M. Dastgheyb
- School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Zhigang Li
- Scientific Research Centre, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
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Ye H, Hu X, Wen Y, Tu C, Hornicek F, Duan Z, Min L. Exosomes in the tumor microenvironment of sarcoma: from biological functions to clinical applications. J Nanobiotechnology 2022; 20:403. [PMID: 36064358 PMCID: PMC9446729 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-022-01609-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The current diagnosis and treatment of sarcoma continue to show limited timeliness and efficacy. In order to enable the early detection and management of sarcoma, increasing attentions have been given to the tumor microenvironment (TME). TME is a dynamic network composed of multiple cells, extracellular matrix, vasculature, and exosomes. Exosomes are nano-sized extracellular vesicles derived from various cells in the TME. The major function of exosomes is to promote cancer progress and metastasis through mediating bidirectional cellular communications between sarcoma cells and TME cells. Due to the content specificity, cell tropism, and bioavailability, exosomes have been regarded as promising diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers, and therapeutic vehicles for sarcoma. This review summarizes recent studies on the roles of exosomes in TME of sarcoma, and explores the emerging clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huali Ye
- West China Hospital, West China School of Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xin Hu
- Orthopedic Research Institute, Department of Orthopedics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yang Wen
- Orthopedic Research Institute, Department of Orthopedics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Chongqi Tu
- Orthopedic Research Institute, Department of Orthopedics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Francis Hornicek
- Sarcoma Biology Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedics, Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, and the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Zhenfeng Duan
- Sarcoma Biology Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedics, Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, and the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, 33136, USA.
| | - Li Min
- Orthopedic Research Institute, Department of Orthopedics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.
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Cancer Immunology: From Molecular Mechanisms to Therapeutic Opportunities. Cells 2022; 11:cells11030459. [PMID: 35159269 PMCID: PMC8834057 DOI: 10.3390/cells11030459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
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