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Huang X, Luodan A, Gao H, He J, Ge L, Cha Z, Gong H, Lin X, Li H, Tang Y, Jiang D, Fan X, Xu H. Mitochondrial transfer between BMSCs and Müller promotes mitochondrial fusion and suppresses gliosis in degenerative retina. iScience 2024; 27:110309. [PMID: 39055937 PMCID: PMC11269791 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.110309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction and Müller cells gliosis are significant pathological characteristics of retinal degeneration (RD) and causing blinding. Stem cell therapy is a promising treatment for RD, the recently accepted therapeutic mechanism is cell fusion induced materials transfer. However, whether materials including mitochondrial transfer between grafted stem cells and recipient's cells contribute to suppressing gliosis and mechanism are unclear. In present study, we demonstrated that bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) transferred mitochondria to Müller cells by cell fusion and tunneling nanotubes. BMSCs-derived mitochondria (BMSCs-mito) were integrated into mitochondrial network of Müller cells, improving mitochondrial function, reducing oxidative stress and gliosis, which protected visual function partially in the degenerative rat retina. RNA sequencing analysis revealed that BMSCs-mito increased mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) content and facilitated mitochondrial fusion in damaged Müller cells. It suggests that mitochondrial transfer from BMSCs remodels Müller cells metabolism and suppresses gliosis; thus, delaying the degenerative progression of RD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaona Huang
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China
- Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Luodan A
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China
- Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Hui Gao
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China
- Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Juncai He
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China
- Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Lingling Ge
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China
- Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Zhe Cha
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China
- Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Hong Gong
- Department of Military Cognitive Psychology, School of Psychology, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Xi Lin
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China
- Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Huiting Li
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China
- Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, China
| | - Yongping Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325027, China
| | - Dan Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325027, China
| | - Xiaotang Fan
- Department of Military Cognitive Psychology, School of Psychology, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Haiwei Xu
- Southwest Eye Hospital, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University (Army Medical University), Chongqing, China
- Key Lab of Visual Damage and Regeneration & Restoration of Chongqing, Chongqing, China
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Pollalis D, Georgescu C, Wren JD, Tombulyan G, Leung JM, Lo PA, Bloemhof CM, Lee RH, Bae E, Bailey JK, Pennington BO, Khan AI, Kelly KR, Yeh AK, Sundaram KS, Humayun M, Louie S, Clegg DO, Lee SY. Rescuing Photoreceptors in RPE Dysfunction-Driven Retinal Degeneration: The Role of Small Extracellular Vesicles Secreted from Retinal Pigment Epithelium. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.09.588773. [PMID: 38645051 PMCID: PMC11030310 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.09.588773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
Dysfunction of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a common shared pathology in major degenerative retinal diseases despite variations in the primary etiologies of each disease. Due to their demanding and indispensable functional roles throughout the lifetime, RPE cells are vulnerable to genetic predisposition, external stress, and aging processes. Building upon recent advancements in stem cell technology for differentiating healthy RPE cells and recognizing the significant roles of small extracellular vesicles (sEV) in cellular paracrine and autocrine actions, we investigated the hypothesis that the RPE-secreted sEV alone can restore essential RPE functions and rescue photoreceptors in RPE dysfunction-driven retinal degeneration. Our findings support the rationale for developing intravitreal treatment of sEV. We demonstrate that intravitreally delivered sEV effectively penetrate the full thickness of the retina. Xenogenic intraocular administration of human-derived EVs did not induce acute immune reactions in rodents. sEV derived from human embryonic stem cell (hESC)-derived fully differentiated RPE cells, but not sEV-depleted conditioned cell culture media (CCM minus sEV), rescued photoreceptors and their function in a Royal College of Surgeons (RCS) rat model. This model is characterized by photoreceptor death and retinal degeneration resulting from a mutation in the MerTK gene in RPE cells. From the bulk RNA sequencing study, we identified 447 differently expressed genes in the retina after hESC-RPE-sEV treatment compared with the untreated control. Furthermore, 394 out of 447 genes (88%) showed a reversal in expression toward the healthy state in Long-Evans (LE) rats after treatment compared to the diseased state. Particularly, detrimental alterations in gene expression in RCS rats, including essential RPE functions such as phototransduction, vitamin A metabolism, and lipid metabolism were partially reversed. Defective photoreceptor outer segment engulfment due to intrinsic MerTK mutation was partially ameliorated. These findings suggest that RPE-secreted sEV may play a functional role similar to that of RPE cells. Our study justifies further exploration to fully unlock future therapeutic interventions with sEV in a broad array of degenerative retinal diseases.
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Ahluwalia K, Du Z, Martinez-Camarillo JC, Naik A, Thomas BB, Pollalis D, Lee SY, Dave P, Zhou E, Li Z, Chester C, Humayun MS, Louie SG. Unveiling Drivers of Retinal Degeneration in RCS Rats: Functional, Morphological, and Molecular Insights. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:3749. [PMID: 38612560 PMCID: PMC11011632 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25073749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Retinal degenerative diseases, including age-related macular degeneration and retinitis pigmentosa, significantly contribute to adult blindness. The Royal College of Surgeons (RCS) rat is a well-established disease model for studying these dystrophies; however, molecular investigations remain limited. We conducted a comprehensive analysis of retinal degeneration in RCS rats, including an immunodeficient RCS (iRCS) sub-strain, using ocular coherence tomography, electroretinography, histology, and molecular dissection using transcriptomics and immunofluorescence. No significant differences in retinal degeneration progression were observed between the iRCS and immunocompetent RCS rats, suggesting a minimal role of adaptive immune responses in disease. Transcriptomic alterations were primarily in inflammatory signaling pathways, characterized by the strong upregulation of Tnfa, an inflammatory signaling molecule, and Nox1, a contributor to reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Additionally, a notable decrease in Alox15 expression was observed, pointing to a possible reduction in anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving lipid mediators. These findings were corroborated by immunostaining, which demonstrated increased photoreceptor lipid peroxidation (4HNE) and photoreceptor citrullination (CitH3) during retinal degeneration. Our work enhances the understanding of molecular changes associated with retinal degeneration in RCS rats and offers potential therapeutic targets within inflammatory and oxidative stress pathways for confirmatory research and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kabir Ahluwalia
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (K.A.); (A.N.); (P.D.); (E.Z.); (Z.L.); (C.C.)
| | - Zhaodong Du
- USC Ginsburg Institute of for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (Z.D.); (J.C.M.-C.); (B.B.T.); (D.P.); (S.Y.L.); (M.S.H.)
| | - Juan Carlos Martinez-Camarillo
- USC Ginsburg Institute of for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (Z.D.); (J.C.M.-C.); (B.B.T.); (D.P.); (S.Y.L.); (M.S.H.)
- Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Aditya Naik
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (K.A.); (A.N.); (P.D.); (E.Z.); (Z.L.); (C.C.)
| | - Biju B. Thomas
- USC Ginsburg Institute of for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (Z.D.); (J.C.M.-C.); (B.B.T.); (D.P.); (S.Y.L.); (M.S.H.)
- Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Dimitrios Pollalis
- USC Ginsburg Institute of for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (Z.D.); (J.C.M.-C.); (B.B.T.); (D.P.); (S.Y.L.); (M.S.H.)
- Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Sun Young Lee
- USC Ginsburg Institute of for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (Z.D.); (J.C.M.-C.); (B.B.T.); (D.P.); (S.Y.L.); (M.S.H.)
- Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
- Department of Physiology & Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Priyal Dave
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (K.A.); (A.N.); (P.D.); (E.Z.); (Z.L.); (C.C.)
| | - Eugene Zhou
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (K.A.); (A.N.); (P.D.); (E.Z.); (Z.L.); (C.C.)
| | - Zeyang Li
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (K.A.); (A.N.); (P.D.); (E.Z.); (Z.L.); (C.C.)
| | - Catherine Chester
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (K.A.); (A.N.); (P.D.); (E.Z.); (Z.L.); (C.C.)
| | - Mark S. Humayun
- USC Ginsburg Institute of for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (Z.D.); (J.C.M.-C.); (B.B.T.); (D.P.); (S.Y.L.); (M.S.H.)
- Roski Eye Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Stan G. Louie
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (K.A.); (A.N.); (P.D.); (E.Z.); (Z.L.); (C.C.)
- USC Ginsburg Institute of for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (Z.D.); (J.C.M.-C.); (B.B.T.); (D.P.); (S.Y.L.); (M.S.H.)
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Pollalis D, Calle AG, Martinez-Camarillo JC, Ahluwalia K, Hinman C, Mitra D, Lebkowski J, Lee SY, Thomas BB, Ahmed F, Chan V, Junge JA, Fraser S, Louie S, Humayun M. Scaling up polarized RPE cell supernatant production on parylene membrane. Exp Eye Res 2024; 240:109789. [PMID: 38242423 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2024.109789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/21/2024]
Abstract
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a leading cause of vision loss, primarily arises from the degeneration of retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and photoreceptors. Current therapeutic options for dry AMD are limited. Encouragingly, cultured RPE cells on parylene-based biomimetic Bruch's membrane demonstrate characteristics akin to the native RPE layer. In this study, we cultivated human embryonic stem cell-derived polarized RPE (hESC-PRPE) cells on parylene membranes at both small- and large-scale settings, collecting conditioned supernatant, denoted as PRPE-SF. We conducted a comprehensive analysis of the morphology of the cultured hESC-RPE cells and the secreted growth factors in PRPE-SF. To evaluate the in vivo efficacy of these products, the product was administered via intravitreal injections of PRPE-SF in immunodeficient Royal College of Surgeons (iRCS) rats, a model for retinal degeneration. Our study not only demonstrated the scalability of PRPE-SF production while maintaining RPE cell phenotype but also showed consistent protein concentrations between small- and large-scale batches. We consistently identified 10 key factors in PRPE-SF, including BMP-7, IGFBP-2, IGFBP-3, IGFBP-4, IGFBP-6, MANF, PEDF, PDGF-AA, TGFβ1, and VEGF. Following intravitreal administration of PRPE-SF, we observed a significant increase in the thickness of the outer nuclear layer (ONL) and photoreceptor preservation in iRCS rats. Furthermore, correlation analysis revealed that IGFBP-3, IGFBP-4, MANF, PEDF, and TGFβ1 displayed positive associations with in vivo bioactivity, while GDF-15 exhibited a negative correlation. Overall, this study highlights the feasibility of scaling up PRPE-SF production on parylene membranes without compromising its essential constituents. The outcomes of PRPE-SF administration in an animal model of retinal degeneration present substantial potential for photoreceptor preservation. Moreover, the identification of candidate surrogate potency markers, showing strong positive associations with in vivo bioactivity, lays a solid foundation for the development of a promising therapeutic intervention for retinal degenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitrios Pollalis
- USC Roski Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; USC Ginsburg Institute for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Alejandra Gonzalez Calle
- USC Roski Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; USC Ginsburg Institute for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Juan Carlos Martinez-Camarillo
- USC Roski Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; USC Ginsburg Institute for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Kabir Ahluwalia
- USC Ginsburg Institute for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; USC Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Cassidy Hinman
- USC Ginsburg Institute for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Debbie Mitra
- USC Ginsburg Institute for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Jane Lebkowski
- Regenerative Patch Technologies LLC, Menlo Park, CA 94028, USA
| | - Sun Young Lee
- USC Roski Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; USC Ginsburg Institute for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Biju B Thomas
- USC Ginsburg Institute for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Faizah Ahmed
- USC Ginsburg Institute for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Victoria Chan
- USC Ginsburg Institute for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Jason A Junge
- Translational Imaging Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Scott Fraser
- Translational Imaging Center, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Stan Louie
- USC Ginsburg Institute for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; USC Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Mark Humayun
- USC Roski Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; USC Ginsburg Institute for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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Mead AJ, Ahluwalia K, Ebright B, Zhang Z, Dave P, Li Z, Zhou E, Naik AA, Ngu R, Chester C, Lu A, Asante I, Pollalis D, Martinez JC, Humayun M, Louie S. Loss of 15-Lipoxygenase in Retinodegenerative RCS Rats. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2309. [PMID: 38396985 PMCID: PMC10889776 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25042309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a retinal degenerative disease associated with a diversity of genetic mutations. In a natural progression study (NPS) evaluating the molecular changes in Royal College of Surgeons (RCS) rats using lipidomic profiling, RNA sequencing, and gene expression analyses, changes associated with retinal degeneration from p21 to p60 were evaluated, where reductions in retinal ALOX15 expression corresponded with disease progression. This important enzyme catalyzes the formation of specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) such as lipoxins (LXs), resolvins (RvDs), and docosapentaenoic acid resolvins (DPA RvDs), where reduced ALOX15 corresponded with reduced SPMs. Retinal DPA RvD2 levels were found to correlate with retinal structural and functional decline. Retinal RNA sequencing comparing p21 with p60 showed an upregulation of microglial inflammatory pathways accompanied by impaired damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP) clearance pathways. This analysis suggests that ALXR/FPR2 activation can ameliorate disease progression, which was supported by treatment with an LXA4 analog, NAP1051, which was able to promote the upregulation of ALOX12 and ALOX15. This study showed that retinal inflammation from activated microglia and dysregulation of lipid metabolism were central to the pathogenesis of retinal degeneration in RP, where ALXR/FPR2 activation was able to preserve retinal structure and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew James Mead
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (A.J.M.); (K.A.); (B.E.); (Z.Z.); (P.D.); (Z.L.); (E.Z.); (A.A.N.); (R.N.); (C.C.); (A.L.); (I.A.)
| | - Kabir Ahluwalia
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (A.J.M.); (K.A.); (B.E.); (Z.Z.); (P.D.); (Z.L.); (E.Z.); (A.A.N.); (R.N.); (C.C.); (A.L.); (I.A.)
| | - Brandon Ebright
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (A.J.M.); (K.A.); (B.E.); (Z.Z.); (P.D.); (Z.L.); (E.Z.); (A.A.N.); (R.N.); (C.C.); (A.L.); (I.A.)
| | - Zeyu Zhang
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (A.J.M.); (K.A.); (B.E.); (Z.Z.); (P.D.); (Z.L.); (E.Z.); (A.A.N.); (R.N.); (C.C.); (A.L.); (I.A.)
| | - Priyal Dave
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (A.J.M.); (K.A.); (B.E.); (Z.Z.); (P.D.); (Z.L.); (E.Z.); (A.A.N.); (R.N.); (C.C.); (A.L.); (I.A.)
| | - Zeyang Li
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (A.J.M.); (K.A.); (B.E.); (Z.Z.); (P.D.); (Z.L.); (E.Z.); (A.A.N.); (R.N.); (C.C.); (A.L.); (I.A.)
| | - Eugene Zhou
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (A.J.M.); (K.A.); (B.E.); (Z.Z.); (P.D.); (Z.L.); (E.Z.); (A.A.N.); (R.N.); (C.C.); (A.L.); (I.A.)
| | - Aditya Anil Naik
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (A.J.M.); (K.A.); (B.E.); (Z.Z.); (P.D.); (Z.L.); (E.Z.); (A.A.N.); (R.N.); (C.C.); (A.L.); (I.A.)
| | - Rachael Ngu
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (A.J.M.); (K.A.); (B.E.); (Z.Z.); (P.D.); (Z.L.); (E.Z.); (A.A.N.); (R.N.); (C.C.); (A.L.); (I.A.)
| | - Catherine Chester
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (A.J.M.); (K.A.); (B.E.); (Z.Z.); (P.D.); (Z.L.); (E.Z.); (A.A.N.); (R.N.); (C.C.); (A.L.); (I.A.)
| | - Angela Lu
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (A.J.M.); (K.A.); (B.E.); (Z.Z.); (P.D.); (Z.L.); (E.Z.); (A.A.N.); (R.N.); (C.C.); (A.L.); (I.A.)
| | - Isaac Asante
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (A.J.M.); (K.A.); (B.E.); (Z.Z.); (P.D.); (Z.L.); (E.Z.); (A.A.N.); (R.N.); (C.C.); (A.L.); (I.A.)
- University of Southern California Ginsburg Institute for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (D.P.); (J.C.M.); (M.H.)
- University of Southern California Roski Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Dimitrios Pollalis
- University of Southern California Ginsburg Institute for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (D.P.); (J.C.M.); (M.H.)
- University of Southern California Roski Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Juan Carlos Martinez
- University of Southern California Ginsburg Institute for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (D.P.); (J.C.M.); (M.H.)
- University of Southern California Roski Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Mark Humayun
- University of Southern California Ginsburg Institute for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (D.P.); (J.C.M.); (M.H.)
- University of Southern California Roski Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Stan Louie
- Mann School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA; (A.J.M.); (K.A.); (B.E.); (Z.Z.); (P.D.); (Z.L.); (E.Z.); (A.A.N.); (R.N.); (C.C.); (A.L.); (I.A.)
- University of Southern California Ginsburg Institute for Biomedical Therapeutics, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (D.P.); (J.C.M.); (M.H.)
- University of Southern California Roski Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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