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In vitro culture of the zoonotic nematode Anisakis pegreffii (Nematoda, Anisakidae). Parasit Vectors 2023; 16:51. [PMID: 36732837 PMCID: PMC9896804 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05629-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anisakiasis is a foodborne disease caused by the third-stage larvae (L3) of two species belonging to the genus Anisakis: Anisakis pegreffii and Anisakis simplex sensu stricto. Both species have been the subject of different -omics studies undertaken in the past decade, but a reliable in vitro culture protocol that would enable a more versatile approach to functional studies has never been devised. In nature, A. pegreffii shows a polyxenous life-cycle. It reproduces in toothed whales (final host) and disseminates embryonated eggs via cetacean faeces in the water column. In the environment, a first- (L1) and second-stage larva (L2) develops inside the egg, and subsequently hatched L2 is ingested by a planktonic crustacean or small fish (intermediate host). In the crustacean pseudocoelom, the larva moults to the third stage (L3) and grows until the host is eaten by a fish or cephalopod (paratenic host). Infective L3 migrates into the visceral cavity of its paratenic host and remains in the state of paratenesis until a final host preys on the former. Once in the final host's gastric chambers, L3 attaches to mucosa, moults in the fourth stage (L4) and closes its life-cycle by becoming reproductively mature. METHODS Testing two commercially available media (RPMI 1640, Schneider's Drosophila) in combination with each of the six different heat-inactivated sera, namely foetal bovine, rabbit, chicken, donkey, porcine and human serum, we have obtained the first reliable, fast and simple in vitro cultivation protocol for A. pegreffii. RESULTS Schneider's Drosophila insect media supplemented with 10% chicken serum allowed high reproducibility and survival of adult A. pegreffii. The maturity was reached already at the beginning of the third week in culture. From collected eggs, hatched L2 were maintained in culture for 2 weeks. The protocol also enabled the description of undocumented morphological and ultrastructural features of the parasite developmental stages. CONCLUSIONS Closing of the A. pegreffii life-cycle from L3 to reproducing adults is an important step from many research perspectives (e.g., vaccine and drug-target research, transgenesis, pathogenesis), but further effort is necessary to optimise the efficient moulting of L2 to infective L3.
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Shears RK, Grencis RK. Whipworm secretions and their roles in host-parasite interactions. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:348. [PMID: 36175934 PMCID: PMC9524059 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05483-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Whipworm (Trichuris) is a genus of roundworms that causes gastrointestinal infections in humans and animals. Of particular interest are T. trichiura, the causative agent of human trichuriasis, a neglected tropical disease that affects 477 million people worldwide, and T. suis, the pig whipworm species, responsible for growth stunting and economic losses within the agricultural industry. The naturally occurring mouse whipworm, T. muris, has been used for decades as a model for trichuriasis, yielding knowledge on the biology of these parasites and the host response to infection. Ex vivo culture of T. muris (and to some extent, T. suis) has provided insight into the composition of the excretory/secretory (E/S) products released by worms, which include a myriad of proteins, RNAs, lipids, glycans, metabolites and extracellular vesicles. T. muris E/S has formed the basis of the search for whipworm vaccine candidates, while the immunomodulatory potential of T. suis and T. muris secretions has been investigated with the aim of improving our understanding of how these parasites modulate host immunity, as well as identifying immunomodulatory candidates with therapeutic potential in the context of inflammatory diseases. This article will review the various components found within Trichuris E/S, their potential as vaccine candidates and their immunomodulatory properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca K Shears
- Centre for Bioscience, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, M1 5DG, UK. .,Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, M1 5DG, UK.
| | - Richard K Grencis
- Lydia Becker Institute for Immunology and Inflammation, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.,Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell Matrix Research, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.,Division of Infection, Immunity and Respiratory Medicine, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.,School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
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Rončević T, Gerdol M, Mardirossian M, Maleš M, Cvjetan S, Benincasa M, Maravić A, Gajski G, Krce L, Aviani I, Hrabar J, Trumbić Ž, Derks M, Pallavicini A, Weingarth M, Zoranić L, Tossi A, Mladineo I. Anisaxins, helical antimicrobial peptides from marine parasites, kill resistant bacteria by lipid extraction and membrane disruption. Acta Biomater 2022; 146:131-144. [PMID: 35470073 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2022.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
An infecting and propagating parasite relies on its innate defense system to evade the host's immune response and to survive challenges from commensal bacteria. More so for the nematode Anisakis, a marine parasite that during its life cycle encounters both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts and their highly diverse microbiotas. Although much is still unknown about how the nematode mitigates the effects of these microbiota, its antimicrobial peptides likely play an important role in its survival. We identified anisaxins, the first cecropin-like helical antimicrobial peptides originating from a marine parasite, by mining available genomic and transcriptomic data for Anisakis spp. These peptides are potent bactericidal agents in vitro, selectively active against Gram-negative bacteria, including multi-drug resistant strains, at sub-micromolar concentrations. Their interaction with bacterial membranes was confirmed by solid state NMR (ssNMR) and is highly dependent on the peptide concentration as well as peptide to lipid ratio, as evidenced by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. MD results indicated that an initial step in the membranolytic mode of action involves membrane bulging and lipid extraction; a novel mechanism which may underline the peptides' potency. Subsequent steps include membrane permeabilization leading to leakage of molecules and eventually cell death, but without visible macroscopic damage, as shown by atomic force microscopy and flow cytometry. This membranolytic antibacterial activity does not translate to cytotoxicity towards human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (HPBMCs), which was minimal at well above bactericidal concentrations, making anisaxins promising candidates for further drug development. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Witnessing the rapid spread of antibiotic resistance resulting in millions of infected and dozens of thousands dying worldwide every year, we identified anisaxins, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) from marine parasites, Anisakis spp., with potent bactericidal activity and selectivity towards multi-drug resistant Gram-negative bacteria. Anisaxins are membrane-active peptides, whose activity, very sensitive to local peptide concentrations, involves membrane bulging and lipid extraction, leading to membrane permeabilization and bacterial cell death. At the same time, their toxicity towards host cells is negligible, which is often not the case for membrane-active AMPs, therefore making them suitable drug candidates. Membrane bulging and lipid extraction are novel concepts that broaden our understanding of peptide interactions with bacterial functional structures, essential for future design of such biomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomislav Rončević
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Split, Ruđera Boškovića 33, Split 21000, Croatia.
| | - Marco Gerdol
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste 34127, Italy
| | - Mario Mardirossian
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste 34125, Italy
| | - Matko Maleš
- Faculty of Maritime Studies, University of Split, Split 21000, Croatia
| | - Svjetlana Cvjetan
- Laboratory for Aquaculture, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Split 21000, Croatia
| | - Monica Benincasa
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste 34127, Italy
| | - Ana Maravić
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Split, Ruđera Boškovića 33, Split 21000, Croatia
| | - Goran Gajski
- Mutagenesis Unit, Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb 10000, Croatia
| | - Lucija Krce
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Split, Split 21000, Croatia
| | - Ivica Aviani
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Split, Split 21000, Croatia
| | - Jerko Hrabar
- Laboratory for Aquaculture, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Split 21000, Croatia
| | - Željka Trumbić
- University Department of Marine Studies, University of Split, Split 21000, Croatia
| | - Maik Derks
- NMR spectroscopy, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, University of Utrecht, Utrecht 3584CH, The Netherlands; Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, Department of Chemistry, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, Utrecht 3584 CH, The Netherlands
| | - Alberto Pallavicini
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste 34127, Italy; Oceanography Division, Istituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e di Geofisica Sperimentale - OGS, Trieste, Italy
| | - Markus Weingarth
- NMR spectroscopy, Bijvoet Centre for Biomolecular Research, University of Utrecht, Utrecht 3584CH, The Netherlands
| | - Larisa Zoranić
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Split, Split 21000, Croatia
| | - Alessandro Tossi
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste 34127, Italy
| | - Ivona Mladineo
- Laboratory of Functional Helminthology, Biology Centre Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Parasitology BC CAS, Branisovska 31, Ceske Budejovice 37005, Czech Republic.
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Stryiński R, Mateos J, Carrera M, Jastrzębski JP, Bogacka I, Łopieńska-Biernat E. Tandem Mass Tagging (TMT) Reveals Tissue-Specific Proteome of L4 Larvae of Anisakis simplex s. s.: Enzymes of Energy and/or Carbohydrate Metabolism as Potential Drug Targets in Anisakiasis. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23084336. [PMID: 35457153 PMCID: PMC9027741 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23084336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Anisakis simplex s. s. is a parasitic nematode of marine mammals and causative agent of anisakiasis in humans. The cuticle and intestine of the larvae are the tissues most responsible for direct and indirect contact, respectively, of the parasite with the host. At the L4 larval stage, tissues, such as the cuticle and intestine, are fully developed and functional, in contrast to the L3 stage. As such, this work provides for the first time the tissue-specific proteome of A. simplex s. s. larvae in the L4 stage. Statistical analysis (FC ≥ 2; p-value ≤ 0.01) showed that 107 proteins were differentially regulated (DRPs) between the cuticle and the rest of the larval body. In the comparison between the intestine and the rest of the larval body at the L4 stage, 123 proteins were identified as DRPs. Comparison of the individual tissues examined revealed a total of 272 DRPs, with 133 proteins more abundant in the cuticle and 139 proteins more abundant in the intestine. Detailed functional analysis of the identified proteins was performed using bioinformatics tools. Glycolysis and the tricarboxylic acid cycle were the most enriched metabolic pathways by cuticular and intestinal proteins, respectively, in the L4 stage of A. simplex s. s. The presence of two proteins, folliculin (FLCN) and oxoglutarate dehydrogenase (OGDH), was confirmed by Western blot, and their tertiary structure was predicted and compared with other species. In addition, host–pathogen interactions were identified, and potential new allergens were predicted. The result of this manuscript shows the largest number of protein identifications to our knowledge using proteomics tools for different tissues of L4 larvae of A. simplex s. s. The identified tissue-specific proteins could serve as targets for new drugs against anisakiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Stryiński
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
- Correspondence: (R.S.); (M.C.); (E.Ł.-B.)
| | - Jesús Mateos
- Clinical Pharmacology Group, Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Santiago de Compostela, 15-706 A Coruña, Spain;
| | - Mónica Carrera
- Department of Food Technology, Marine Research Institute (IIM), Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), 36-208 Vigo, Spain
- Correspondence: (R.S.); (M.C.); (E.Ł.-B.)
| | - Jan Paweł Jastrzębski
- Department of Plant Physiology, Genetics and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Iwona Bogacka
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland;
| | - Elżbieta Łopieńska-Biernat
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
- Correspondence: (R.S.); (M.C.); (E.Ł.-B.)
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