Cell-Secreted Vesicles: Novel Opportunities in Cancer Diagnosis, Monitoring and Treatment

Medium Extracellular Vesicles—A Qualitative and Quantitative Biomarker of Prostate Cancer

For years, the diagnosis of prostate cancer has been understated. Despite the relatively low mortality rate, prostate cancer is still one of the most common neoplasms in men, which proves the need for continuous improvements in the diagnostics of this disease. New biomarkers may address these challenges in the form of extracellular vesicles (EV) secreted by prostate cancer cells. The available literature in the PubMed, SCOPUS, and ResearchGate databases from the last ten years was analyzed using search phrases such as extracellular vesicles, microparticles, microvesicles, cancer biomarkers, and prostate cancer. Then, the research was selected in terms of the size of the tested EVs (the EV medium of 100–1000 nm diameter, was taken into account), the latest versions of the literature were selected and compiled, and their results were compared. The group of extracellular vesicles contain a substantial amount of genetic information that can be used in research on the specificity of prostate cancer and other cancers. So far, it has been shown that EVs produced by PCa cells express proteins specific for these cells, which, thanks to their specificity, can make EV useful biomarkers of prostate cancer. Moreover, the importance of the quantitative release of EV from PCa cells has been demonstrated, which may be necessary to diagnose prostate cancer malignancy. Each method positively correlates with Gleason’s results and is even characterized by greater diagnostic sensitivity. Medium extracellular vesicles are a promising research material, and their specificity and sensitivity may allow them to be used in future prostate cancer diagnostics as biomarkers.

Tumor-derived extracellular vesicles modulate innate immune responses to affect tumor progression

Immune cells are capable of influencing tumor progression in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Meanwhile, one mechanism by which tumor modulate immune cells function is through extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are cell-derived extracellular membrane vesicles. EVs can act as mediators of intercellular communication and can deliver nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and other signaling molecules between cells. In recent years, studies have found that EVs play a crucial role in the communication between tumor cells and immune cells. Innate immunity is the first-line response of the immune system against tumor progression. Therefore, tumor cell-derived EVs (TDEVs) which modulate the functional change of innate immune cells serve important functions in the context of tumor progression. Emerging evidence has shown that TDEVs dually enhance or suppress innate immunity through various pathways. This review aims to summarize the influence of TDEVs on macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils, and natural killer cells. We also summarize their further effects on the progression of tumors, which may provide new ideas for developing novel tumor therapies targeting EVs.

Advances in Hybrid Vesicular-based Drug Delivery Systems: Improved Biocompatibility, Targeting, Therapeutic Efficacy and Pharmacokinetics of Anticancer Drugs

Anticancer drugs and diagnostics can be transported in nanoscale vesicles that provide a flexible platform. A hybrid nanoparticle, a nano assembly made up of many types of nanostructures, has the greatest potential to perform these two activities simultaneously. Nanomedicine has shown the promise of vesicular carriers based on lipopolymersomes, lipid peptides, and metallic hybrid nano-vesicle systems. However, there are significant limitations that hinder the clinical implementation of these systems at the commercial scale, such as low productivity, high energy consumption, expensive setup, long process durations, and the current cancer therapies described in this article. Combinatorial hybrid systems can be used to reduce the above limitations. A greater therapeutic index and improved clinical results are possible with hybrid nanovesicular systems, which integrate the benefits of many carriers into a single structure. Due to their unique properties, cell-based drug delivery systems have shown tremendous benefits in the treatment of cancer. Nanoparticles (NPs) can benefit significantly from the properties of erythrocytes and platelets, which are part of the circulatory cells and circulate for a long time. Due to their unique physicochemical properties, nanomaterials play an essential role in cell-based drug delivery. Combining the advantages of different nanomaterials and cell types gives the resulting delivery systems a wide range of desirable properties. NPs are nextgeneration core-shell nanostructures that combine a lipid shell with a polymer core. The fabrication of lipid-polymer hybrid NPs has recently undergone a fundamental shift, moving from a two-step to a one-step technique based on the joint self-assembly of polymers and lipids. Oncologists are particularly interested in this method as a combinatorial drug delivery platform because of its two-in-one structure. This article addresses various preparative methods for the preparation of hybrid nano-vesicular systems. It also discusses the cellular mechanism of hybrid nano-vesicular systems and describes the thorough knowledge of various hybrid vesicular systems.

Exosomal Non-Coding RNAs: New Insights into the Biology of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Exosomes, extracellular vesicles with a diameter of 40 to 160 nm, are among the smallest extracellular vesicles released by cells. They deliver different cargoes, including proteins, DNAs, and RNAs, and facilitate communication between cells to coordinate a variety of physiological and pathological functions. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the sixth common malignant tumor and the fourth leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Its molecular mechanism remains largely unknown, and there is a lack of reliable and noninvasive biomarkers for early diagnosis and prognosis prediction. Mounting evidence has shown that exosomes carry a variety of ncRNAs, such as long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs), which play critical roles in the occurrence and progression of HCC. In this review, we summarize the recent findings of exosomal miRNAs, lncRNAs, and circRNAs in HCC from their impact on the development of HCC to their potential applications in the diagnosis and treatment of HCC.

Methylation Markers in Cutaneous Melanoma: Unravelling the Potential Utility of Their Tracking by Liquid Biopsy

Malignant melanoma is the most serious, life-threatening form of all dermatologic diseases, with a poor prognosis in the presence of metastases and advanced disease. Despite recent advances in targeted therapy and immunotherapy, there is still a critical need for a better understanding of the fundamental mechanisms behind melanoma progression and resistance onset. Recent advances in genome-wide methylation methods have revealed that aberrant changes in the pattern of DNA methylation play an important role in many aspects of cancer progression, including cell proliferation and migration, evasion of cell death, invasion, and metastasization. The purpose of the current review was to gather evidence regarding the usefulness of DNA methylation tracking in liquid biopsy as a potential biomarker in melanoma. We investigated the key genes and signal transduction pathways that have been found to be altered epigenetically in melanoma. We then highlighted the circulating tumor components present in blood, including circulating melanoma cells (CMC), circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA), and tumor-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs), as a valuable source for identifying relevant aberrations in DNA methylation. Finally, we focused on DNA methylation signatures as a marker for tracking response to therapy and resistance, thus facilitating personalized medicine and decision-making in the treatment of melanoma patients.