Detecting Mind-Wandering from Eye Movement and Oculomotor Data during Learning Video Lecture

A review of eye tracking research on video-based learning

Eye tracking technology is increasingly used to understand individuals' non-conscious, moment-to-moment processes during video-based learning. This review evaluated 44 eye tracking studies on video-based learning conducted between 2010 and 2021. Specifically, the review sought to uncover how the utilisation of eye tracking technology has advanced understandings of the mechanisms underlying effective video-based learning and what type of caution should be exercised when interpreting the findings of these studies. Four important findings emerged from the analysis: (1) not all the studies explained the mechanisms underlying effective video-based learning through employing eye tracking technology, and few studies disentangled the complex relationship between eye tracking metrics and cognitive activities these metrics represent; (2) emotional factors potentially serve to explain the processes that facilitate video-based learning, but few studies captured learners' emotional processes or evaluated their affective gains; (3) ecological validity should be improved for eye tracking research on video-based learning through methods such as using eye tracking systems that have high tolerance for head movements, allowing learners to take control of the pacing of the video, and communicating the learning objectives of the video to participants; and (4) boundary conditions, including personal (e.g. age, prior knowledge) and environmental factors (e.g. the topic of videos, type of knowledge), must be considered when interpreting research findings. The findings of this review inspire a number of propositions for designing and interpreting eye tracking research on video-based learning.

The effects of indoor plants and traffic noise on English reading comprehension of Chinese university students in home offices

Owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, working from home promotes the importance of indoor environment qualities. With the settings and functions of home offices, an experiment was carried out to determine the interaction effects between indoor plants and traffic noise levels (TNLs) on the performance and environmental evaluations of English reading comprehension tasks (ERCTs) and the performance of short-term breaks. A sample of 22 Chinese university students (12 males and 10 females) took part in the experiment. Two visual conditions (with and without plants) and five TNLs (i.e., 35, 45, 50, 55, and 60 dBA TNL) were included. Participants’ accuracy rates, eye movements, mental workload, and feelings about the environment were collected. The mental fatigue recovery (MFR), visual fatigue recovery (VFR), anxiety recovery (AR), and unfriendly recovery (UR) were measured for the analysis of a 5-min short-term break. The results demonstrate (1) plants have significant effects on ERCTs and short-term breaks, especially at 45 and 50 dBA TNL; (2) the effects of TNLs on ERCTs’ eye movements and work environment satisfaction differ by the presence of plants, e.g., the average pupil diameter (APD), lighting and layout satisfaction; (3) The effects of indoor plants on ERCT differ by the range of TNLs. In conclusion, indoor plants are beneficial to home workers engaged in ERCT when TNL does not exceed 50 dBA. The current data highlight the importance of audio-visual interaction in home offices and provide insights into the interaction mechanism between indoor plants and traffic noise.

Video Learning of Surgical Procedures: A Randomized Comparison of Microscopic, 2- and 3-Dimensional Endoscopic Ear Surgery Techniques

BACKGROUND

Video learning of surgical procedures helps trainees gain an initial understanding of the complex anatomy and the surgical procedure. Because no comparative studies have yet examined which microsurgical approach to the middle ear is most suitable for video learning, the authors investigated objective and subjective outcomes for medical trainees observing microscopic, 2-dimensional (2D) endoscopic, and 3- dimensional (3D) endoscopic ear surgeries.

METHODS

Sixty-two medical students (min. 3rd year) from the University Hospital of Bern watched three standardized videos of a type I tympanoplasty surgery recording, conducted with a microscope, a 2D endoscope, and a 3D endoscope, respectively. The authors measured participants' learning outcome, eye movements, cognitive load, and subjective preferences.

RESULTS

Of the 62 participants included in the study, 14 were male (22.58%), and mean age was 24.44 years (range: 21-29). Learning outcome was highest after watching the 3D endoscopic video (mean [SD], 59.48% [20.57%]). Differences in score were statistically significant: 2D endoscopic video (mean difference: -6.56%, 95% CI: -13.02 to -0.10%), microscopic video (mean difference: -13.82%, 95% CI: -20.27 to -7.36%). Participants showed lowest average eye fixation duration when watching the 3D endoscopic video (mean [SD], 307 ms [109 ms]), with statistically significant differences to the 2D endoscopic video (mean difference: -139 ms, 95% CI: -185 to -93 ms), and the microscopic video (mean difference: -264 ms, 95% CI: -310 to -218 ms). Participants reported lowest cognitive load for the 2D and 3D endoscopic videos. Ratings on discomfort, usability, naturalness, depth perception, and image quality were in favor of the 3D endoscopic video.

CONCLUSION

The 3D endoscopic technique offers many advantages for video learning in terms of knowledge gain, visual field exploration, and subjective evaluation. To optimize learning effects in trainees, the authors recommend the use of endoscopes in middle ear surgery and, if available, using 3D technology.

Influencing factors of learning sustained attention for nursing students in online settings: A structural equation model

BACKGROUND

Sustained attention is a key variable affecting nursing students' academic performance during online learning process. However, factors contributing to sustained attention remain to be determined.

AIMS

To analyze the path relationships among the influencing factors for nursing students' sustained attention in online learning using a structural equation model.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional survey was administered.

METHODS

Nursing students from 35 nursing schools in China were invited to participate in this survey study. Once participating in nursing programs and receiving online learning, they were eligible for the study. The data were collected online via the Questionnaire Star platform from March 29 to April 19, 2020. A structural equation modelling (SEM) approach was utilized to analyze the relationships between sustained attention and influencing factors (situational interest, anxiety, cognitive load, technology efficacy and professional identity). Furthermore, multi-group SEM analysis was conducted to examine whether the model equally fitted nursing students in different levels of programs.

RESULTS

A total of 1089 nursing students completed the questionnaires. The majority (77.3%) were female and the mean age (SD) was 21.9 (4.4) years. A half (50.3%) were enrolled in the undergraduate programs. Results suggested that situational interest (β = 0.19, 95% CI: 0.14, 0.24) and anxiety (β = -0.70, 95% CI: -0.76, -0.64) directly affected sustained attention. Both technology efficacy (β = 0.22, 95% CI: 0.15, 0.28) and professional identity (β = 0.20, 95% CI: 0.14, 0.26) had conferred indirect effects on sustained attention through academic emotions (i.e., situational interest and anxiety). The cognitive load directly affected sustained attention (β = -0.15, 95% CI: -0.20, -0.09) and indirectly affected sustained attention through anxiety (β = -0.32, 95% CI: -0.37, -0.26). There was no significant difference in the model fit among nursing students in various programs, including diplomatic, associate and bachelor's degree and above programs (∆χ2 = 27.228, p = 0.611).

CONCLUSIONS

Technology efficacy, professional identity, situational interest, anxiety and cognitive load are identified as the main elements affecting nursing students' sustained attention. This model is equally suitable for nursing students in different levels of nursing programs. During the process of online learning, students' attributes, emotions and cognition should be considered to help students achieve learning goals in nursing education.