A Bottom-Up Approach to Lithium-Ion Battery Cost Modeling with a Focus on Cathode Active Materials

High-Voltage Spinel Cathode Materials: Navigating the Structural Evolution for Lithium-Ion Batteries

High-voltage LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 (LNMO) spinel oxides are highly promising cobalt-free cathode materials to cater to the surging demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, commercial application of LNMOs is still challenging despite decades of research. To address the challenge, the understanding of their crystallography and structural evolutions during synthesis and electrochemical operation is critical. This review aims to illustrate and to update the fundamentals of crystallography, phase transition mechanisms, and electrochemical behaviors of LNMOs. First, the research history of LNMO and its development into a LIB cathode material is outlined. Then the structural basics of LNMOs including the classic and updated views of the crystal polymorphism, interconversion between the polymorphs, and structure-composition relationship is reviewed. Afterward, the phase transition mechanisms of LNMOs that connect structural and electrochemical properties are comprehensively discussed from fundamental thermodynamics to operando dynamics at intra- and inter-particle levels. In addition, phase evolutions during overlithiation as well as thermal-/electrochemical-driven phase transformations of LNMOs are also discussed. Finally, recommendations are offered for the further development of LNMOs as well as other complex materials to unlock their full potential for future sustainable and powerful batteries.

Influences of plasma treatment parameters on the hydrophobicity of cathode and anode materials from spent lithium-ion batteries

The recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) can not only reduce the potential harm caused by solid waste piles to the local environment but also provide raw materials for manufacturing new batteries. Flotation is an alternative approach to achieve the selective separation of cathode and anode active materials from spent LIBs. However, the presence of organic binder on the surface of hydrophilic lithium transition-metal oxides results in losses of cathode materials in the froth phase. In this study, plasma treatment was utilized to remove organic layers from cathode and anode active materials. Firstly, the correlations between plasma treatment parameters (e.g., input power, air flowrate, and treatment time) were explored and the contact angles of cathode and anode active materials were investigated by the response surface methodology. Secondly, differences in the flotation recoveries of cathode and anode active materials were enhanced with plasma modification prior to flotation, which is consistent with the contact angle measurement. Finally, the plasma-modification mechanisms of hydrophobicity of cathode and anode active materials were discussed according to Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analyses. The proposed method could be a promising tool to enhance the flotation separation efficiency of cathode and anode active materials for the recycling of spent LIBs.

Electric vehicle battery chemistry affects supply chain disruption vulnerabilities

We examine the relationship between electric vehicle battery chemistry and supply chain disruption vulnerability for four critical minerals: lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese. We compare the nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) and lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cathode chemistries by (1) mapping the supply chains for these four materials, (2) calculating a vulnerability index for each cathode chemistry for various focal countries and (3) using network flow optimization to bound uncertainties. World supply is currently vulnerable to disruptions in China for both chemistries: 80% [71% to 100%] of NMC cathodes and 92% [90% to 93%] of LFP cathodes include minerals that pass through China. NMC has additional risks due to concentrations of nickel, cobalt, and manganese in other countries. The combined vulnerability of multiple supply chain stages is substantially larger than at individual steps alone. Our results suggest that reducing risk requires addressing vulnerabilities across the entire battery supply chain.

Circular economy strategies for mitigating metals shortages in electric vehicle batteries under China's carbon-neutral target

Concerns over supply risks of critical metals used in electric vehicle (EV) batteries are frequently underscored as impediments to the widespread development of EVs. With the progress to achieve carbon neutrality by 2060 for China, projecting the critical metals demand for EV batteries and formulating strategies, especially circular economy strategies, to mitigate the risks of demand-supply imbalance in response to potential obstacles are necessary. However, the development scale of EVs in the transport sector to achieve China's carbon neutrality is unclear, and it remains uncertain to what extent circular economy strategies might contribute to the reduction of primary raw materials extraction. Consequently, we explore the future quantity of EVs in China required to achieve carbon neutrality and quantify the primary supply security levels of critical metals with the effort of battery cascade utilization, technology substitutions, recycling efficiency improvement, and novel business models, by integrating dynamic material flow analysis and national energy technology model. This study reveals that although 18%-30% of lithium and 20%-41% of cobalt, nickel, and manganese can be supplied to EVs through the reuse and recycling of end-of-life batteries, sustainable circular economy strategies alone are insufficient to obviate critical metals shortages for China's EV development. However, the supplementary capacity offered by second-life EV batteries, which refers to the use of batteries after they have reached the end of their first intended life, may prove adequate for China's prospective novel energy storage applications. The cumulative primary demand for lithium, cobalt, and nickel from 2021 to 2060 would reach 5-7 times, 23-114 times, and 4-19 times the corresponding mineral reserves in China. Substantial reduction of metals supply risks apart from lithium can be achieved by the cobalt-free battery technology developments combined with efficient recycling systems, where secondary supply can satisfy the demand as early as 2054.

Progress, Challenge, and Prospect of LiMnO2 : An Adventure toward High-Energy and Low-Cost Li-Ion Batteries

Lithium manganese oxides are considered as promising cathodes for lithium-ion batteries due to their low cost and available resources. Layered LiMnO2 with orthorhombic or monoclinic structure has attracted tremendous interest thanks to its ultrahigh theoretical capacity (285 mAh g-1 ) that almost doubles that of commercialized spinel LiMn2 O4 (148 mAh g-1 ). However, LiMnO2 undergoes phase transition to spinel upon cycling cause by the Jahn-Teller effect of the high-spin Mn3+ . In addition, soluble Mn2+ generates from the disproportionation of Mn3+ and oxygen release during electrochemical processes may cause poor cycle performance. To address the critical issues, tremendous efforts have been made. This paper provides a general review of layered LiMnO2 materials including their crystal structures, synthesis methods, structural/elemental modifications, and electrochemical performance. In brief, first the crystal structures of LiMnO2 and synthetic methods have been summarized. Subsequently, modification strategies for improving electrochemical performance are comprehensively reviewed, including element doping to suppress its phase transition, surface coating to resist manganese dissolution into the electrolyte and impede surface reactions, designing LiMnO2 composites to improve electronic conductivity and Li+ diffusion, and finding compatible electrolytes to enhance safety. At last, future efforts on the research frontier and practical application of LiMnO2 have been discussed.

Thermal Stability and Outgassing Behaviors of High-nickel Cathodes in Lithium-ion Batteries

LiNiO2 -based high-nickel layered oxide cathodes are regarded as promising cathode materials for high-energy-density automotive lithium batteries. Most of the attention thus far has been paid towards addressing their surface and structural instability issues brought by the increase of Ni content (>90 %) with an aim to enhance the cycle stability. However, the poor safety performance remains an intractable problem for their commercialization in the market, yet it has not received appropriate attention. In this review, we focus on the gas generation and thermal degradation behaviors of high-Ni cathodes, which are critical factors in determining their overall safety performance. A comprehensive overview of the mechanisms of outgassing and thermal runaway reactions is presented and analyzed from a chemistry perspective. Finally, we discuss the challenges and the insights into developing robust, safe high-Ni cathodes.

A non-academic perspective on the future of lithium-based batteries

In the field of lithium-based batteries, there is often a substantial divide between academic research and industrial market needs. This is in part driven by a lack of peer-reviewed publications from industry. Here we present a non-academic view on applied research in lithium-based batteries to sharpen the focus and help bridge the gap between academic and industrial research. We focus our discussion on key metrics and challenges to be considered when developing new technologies in this industry. We also explore the need to consider various performance aspects in unison when developing a new material/technology. Moreover, we also investigate the suitability of supply chains, sustainability of materials and the impact on system-level cost as factors that need to be accounted for when working on new technologies. With these considerations in mind, we then assess the latest developments in the lithium-based battery industry, providing our views on the challenges and prospects of various technologies.

Life-Cycle Assessment and Costing of Fuels and Propulsion Systems in Future Fossil-Free Shipping

Future ships need to operate with low or possibly zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions while ensuring low influence on other environmental impacts and that the operation is economically feasible. This study conducts a life-cycle evaluation of potential decarbonization solutions involving selected energy carriers (electrolytic hydrogen, electro-ammonia, electro-methanol, and electricity) in different propulsion system setups (engines, fuel cells, and carbon capture technologies) in terms of environmental impact and costs. The results of the study show that the assessed decarbonization options are promising measures to reduce maritime GHG emissions with low-carbon-intensive electricity. The same order of GHG reduction is shown to be possible independent of the propulsion system and energy carrier used onboard. However, the carbon abatement cost ranges from 300 to 550 €/tCO₂eq, and there is a trade-off with environmental impacts such as human toxicity (cancer and non-cancer effects) and freshwater ecotoxicity mainly linked with the wind infrastructure used for electricity production. Electro-ammonia in fuel cells is indicated to be effective in terms of the carbon abatement cost followed by the so-called HyMethShip concept. The higher abatement cost of all options compared to current options indicates that major incentives and policy measures are required to promote the introduction of alternative fuel and propulsion systems.

A Techno-Economic Model for Benchmarking the Production Cost of Lithium-Ion Battery Cells

In response to the increasing expansion of the electric vehicles (EVs) market and demand, billions of dollars are invested into the battery industry to increase the number and production volume of battery cell manufacturing plants across the world, evident in Giga-battery factories. On the other side, despite the increase in the battery cell raw material prices, the total production cost of battery cells requires reaching a specific value to grow cost-competitive with internal combustion vehicles. Further, obtaining a high-quality battery at the end of the production line requires integrating numerous complex processes. Thus, developing a cost model that simultaneously includes the physical and chemical characteristics of battery cells, commodities prices, process parameters, and economic aspects of a battery production plant is essential in identifying the cost-intensive areas of battery production. Moreover, such a model is helpful in finding the minimum efficient scale for the battery production plant which complies with the emergence of Giga-battery plants. In this regard, a process-based cost model (PBCM) is developed to investigate the final cost for producing ten state-of-the-art battery cell chemistries on large scales in nine locations. For a case study plant of 5.3 GWh.year−1 that produces prismatic NMC111-G battery cells, location can alter the total cost of battery cell production by approximately 47 US$/kWh, which is dominated by the labor cost. This difference could decrease by approximately 31% at the minimum efficient scale of the battery production plant, which is 7.8 GWh.year−1 for the case study in this work. Finally, a comprehensive sensitivity analysis is conducted to investigate the final prices of battery cell chemistries due to the changes in commodities prices, economic factors of the plant, battery cell production parameters, and production volume. The outcomes of this work can support policy designers and battery industry leaders in managing production technology and location.

On the Current and Future Outlook of Battery Chemistries for Electric Vehicles—Mini Review

As the electrification of the transportation industry is accelerating, the energy storage markets are trying to secure more reliable and environmentally benign materials. Advanced materials are the key performance enablers of batteries as well as a key element determining the cost structure, environmental impact, and recyclability of battery cells. In this review, we analyzed the state-of-the-art cell chemistries and active electrode and electrolyte materials for electric vehicles batteries, which we believe will dominate the battery chemistry landscape in the next decade. We believe that major breakthroughs and innovations in electrode materials such as high-nickel cathodes and silicon and metallic lithium anodes, along with novel liquid electrolyte formulations and solid-state electrolytes, will significantly improve the specific capacity of lithium batteries and reduce their cost, leading to accelerated mass-market penetration of EVs.

Determination of Lamb Wave Modes on Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Piezoelectric Transducers

This work presents a method to determine the type of Lamb mode (antisymmetric or symmetric) that propagates through a lithium-ion pouch cell. To determine the type of mode and the group velocity at a specific frequency, two- and three-transducer setups were created. For these setups, it is important that all transducers have the same polarization direction. Two transducers are affixed to the center of the cell at a distance of several centimeters from each other so that the group velocity can be determined. Using cross-correlation, the group velocity of the emerging mode can be calculated. The measurement setup and the processing method was first validated with experiments on acrylic glass and aluminum plates. The measurements were supported with FEM simulations and a numerically calculated model. The output voltages of the receiving piezo-elements obtained in the FEM simulation are in agreement with the underlying theories. The phase shift, which results from the output voltage of the piezo-elements mounted one above the other on different sides of the plate, shows the type of mode. The results of the experimental determination of the Lamb mode that propagates through a lithium-ion pouch cell were validated with a numerically calculated multi-layer model and therefore validate this novel experimental approach.

On the Durability of Protective Titania Coatings on High-Voltage Spinel Cathodes

TiO2 -coating of LiNi0.5-x Mn1.5+x O4 (LNMO) by atomic layer deposition (ALD) has been studied as a strategy to stabilize the cathode/electrolyte interface and mitigate transition metal (TM) ion dissolution. The TiO2 coatings were found to be uniform, with thicknesses estimated to 0.2, 0.3, and 0.6 nm for the LNMO powders exposed to 5, 10, and 20 ALD cycles, respectively. While electrochemical characterization in half-cells revealed little to no improvement in the capacity retention neither at 20 nor at 50 °C, improved capacity retention and coulombic efficiencies were demonstrated for the TiO2 -coated LNMO in LNMO||graphite full-cells at 20 °C. This improvement in cycling stability could partly be attributed to thinner cathode electrolyte interphase on the TiO2 -coated samples. Additionally, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy revealed a thinner solid electrolyte interphase on the graphite electrode cycled against TiO2 -coated LNMO, indicating retardation of TM dissolution by the TiO2 -coating.

LAYERS: A Decision-Support Tool to Illustrate and Assess the Supply and Value Chain for the Energy Transition

Climate change mitigation strategies are developed at international, national, and local authority levels. Technological solutions such as renewable energies (RE) and electric vehicles (EV) have geographically widespread knock-on effects on raw materials. In this paper, a decision-support and data-visualization tool named “LAYERS” is presented, which applies a material flow analysis to illustrate the complex connections along supply chains for carbon technologies. A case study focuses on cobalt for lithium-ion batteries (LIB) required for EVs. It relates real business data from mining and manufacturing to actual EV registrations in the UK to visualize the intended and unintended consequences of the demand for cobalt. LAYERS integrates a geographic information systems (GIS) architecture, database scheme, and whole series of stored procedures and functions. By means of a 3D visualization based on GIS, LAYERS conveys a clear understanding of the location of raw materials (from reserves, to mining, refining, manufacturing, and use) across the globe. This highlights to decision makers the often hidden but far-reaching geo-political implications of the growing demands for a range of raw materials that are needed to meet long-term carbon-reduction targets.

Dilute Electrolyte to Mitigate Capacity Decay and Voltage Fading of Co-Free Li-Rich Cathode for Next-Generation Li-Ion Batteries

Li-rich cathodes have potential for use in next-generation Li-ion batteries (LIBs) owing to their high specific capacity and low cost. However, their intrinsic cycling decay and voltage fading limit practical applications. In addition, these cathodes contain Co, which is nonrenewable, scarce, and expensive. This situation severely limits the rapid and sustainable development of low-cost LIBs. This paper introduces a novel dilute electrolyte to overcome these limitations based on the Co-free Li-rich Li_1.2Mn_0.54Ni_0.26O₂ (LMNO) cathode. An even and robust cathode-electrolyte interface (CEI) formed on the surface of LMNO further protects it from side reactions in the dilute electrolyte. This Co-free Li-rich cathode exhibits the best electrochemical performance reported to date among Li-rich cathodes in terms of outstanding cycling stability (capacity retention of 99.8% at 0.5 C) and dramatically suppressed voltage fading (only 0.3% after 100 cycles). This study demonstrates the potential of Co-free Li-rich cathodes for applications in next-generation LIBs.

Battery technology and recycling alone will not save the electric mobility transition from future cobalt shortages

In recent years, increasing attention has been given to the potential supply risks of critical battery materials, such as cobalt, for electric mobility transitions. While battery technology and recycling advancement are two widely acknowledged strategies for addressing such supply risks, the extent to which they will relieve global and regional cobalt demand–supply imbalance remains poorly understood. Here, we address this gap by simulating historical (1998-2019) and future (2020-2050) global cobalt cycles covering both traditional and emerging end uses with regional resolution (China, the U.S., Japan, the EU, and the rest of the world). We show that cobalt-free batteries and recycling progress can indeed significantly alleviate long-term cobalt supply risks. However, the cobalt supply shortage appears inevitable in the short- to medium-term (during 2028-2033), even under the most technologically optimistic scenario. Our results reveal varying cobalt supply security levels by region and indicate the urgency of boosting primary cobalt supply to ensure global e-mobility ambitions.

New study finds cobalt-free batteries and recycling progress can significantly alleviate long-term cobalt supply risks, however a cobalt supply shortage appears inevitable in the short- to medium-term, even under the most technologically optimistic scenario.

Oxygen Loss in Layered Oxide Cathodes for Li-Ion Batteries: Mechanisms, Effects, and Mitigation

Layered lithium transition metal oxides derived from LiMO₂ (M = Co, Ni, Mn, etc.) have been widely adopted as the cathodes of Li-ion batteries for portable electronics, electric vehicles, and energy storage. Oxygen loss in the layered oxides is one of the major factors leading to cycling-induced structural degradation and its associated fade in electrochemical performance. Herein, we review recent progress in understanding the phenomena of oxygen loss and the resulting structural degradation in layered oxide cathodes. We first present the major driving forces leading to the oxygen loss and then describe the associated structural degradation resulting from the oxygen loss. We follow this analysis with a discussion of the kinetic pathways that enable oxygen loss, and then we address the resulting electrochemical fade. Finally, we review the possible approaches toward mitigating oxygen loss and the associated electrochemical fade as well as detail novel analytical methods for probing the oxygen loss.

Multifunctional Composite Binder for Thick High-Voltage Cathodes in Lithium-Ion Batteries

High-voltage LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5O₄ (LNMO) spinel offers high specific energy and good rate capability with relatively low raw-material cost due to cobalt-free and manganese-rich chemical compositions. Also, increasing mass loading (mg/cm²) by thickening cathodes has been one of the focused areas to greatly improve the energy density of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) at the cell level. The LNMO cathode made with a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVdF) binder, however, suffers from an oxidative decomposition of liquid electrolytes and cathode delamination from a current collector. This problem is exacerbated with an increase in thickness. In this study, we developed a lithium polyacrylate (LiPAA)-sodium alginate (Na-Alg) composite binder series that offer positive multifunctions such as enhancing cathode adhesion and cohesion, improving cycle life, creating an effective passivating layer at the cathode-electrolyte interface (CEI), and lowering cell impedance. Comprehensive design of systematic experiments revealed a close chemo-mechano-electrochemical relationship in the thick high-voltage cathodes. Among the various binder compositions, the LiPAA (30 wt %)-Na-Alg (70 wt %) binder offered a strong adhesion property and positive multifunctions at the CEI layer, which consequently stabilized the solid-electrolyte interfacial (SEI) layer on the graphite anode and improved LIB performances. This novel composite binder will be applicable to various types of thick cathodes in future studies.

Investigation of Individual Cells Replacement Concept in Lithium-Ion Battery Packs with Analysis on Economic Feasibility and Pack Design Requirements

The optimization of lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery pack usage has become essential due to the increasing demand for Li-ion batteries. Since degradation in Li-ion batteries is inevitable, there has been some effort recently on research to maximize the utilization of Li-ion battery cells in the pack. Some promising concepts include reconfigurable battery packs and cell replacement to limit the negative impact of early-degraded cells on the entire pack. This paper used a simulation framework, based on a cell voltage model and a degradation model, to study the feasibility and benefits of the cell replacement concept. The simulation conducted in MATLAB involves generating and varying Li-ion cells in the packs stochastically and simulating the life of the cells as well as the packs until they reach their end-of-life stage. It was found that the cell replacement method can increase the total number of cycles of the battery packs, effectively prolonging the lifespan of the packs. It is also determined that this approach can be more economically beneficial than the current approach of simple pack replacement. For the cell replacement concept to be practical, two main design criteria should be satisfied including individual cell monitoring and easy accessibility to cells at failure stage.

Sustainable Materials from Fish Industry Waste for Electrochemical Energy Systems

Fish industry waste is attracting growing interest for the production of environmentally friendly materials for several different applications, due to the potential for reduced environmental impact and increased socioeconomic benefits. Recently, the application of fish industry waste for the synthesis of value-added materials and energy storage systems represents a feasible route to strengthen the overall sustainability of energy storage product lines. This review focused on an in-depth outlook on the advances in fish byproduct-derived materials for energy storage devices, including lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), sodium-ion (NIBs) batteries, lithium-sulfur batteries (LSBs), supercapacitors and protein batteries. For each of these, the latest applications were presented together with approaches to improve the electrochemical performance of the obtained materials. By analyzing the recent literature on this topic, this review aimed to contribute to further advances in the sustainability of energy storage devices.

The Emerging Electric Vehicle and Battery Industry in Indonesia: Actions around the Nickel Ore Export Ban and a SWOT Analysis

As the automotive industry shifts from internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles to electric vehicles (EVs), many countries are setting new strategies in their transportation sector. The Li-ion battery is currently the most common battery used in EVs due to its high energy density, durability, safety, and cost competitiveness. Nickel is predicted to be an essential component for the lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NMC) as a cathode material of choice for EV applications. Indonesia, one of the world’s largest nickel ore suppliers, put an export ban on nickel ore effective from 2020. The bold movement was intended to initiate the domestic EV industry and encourage investors abroad to drive their manufacturing activities into the country. On the other hand, the global Li-ion battery manufacturers who imported nickel from Indonesia had to restrategize their businesses. This review discussed the chronological events leading to the ban and after the ban from the media, government regulations, and literature reviews. The authors of this study also conducted interviews and attended seminars with the national experts and key players in the battery and EV industry to gain their most pertinent insights. The SWOT analysis of the reviewed materials indicated that while the Indonesian battery industry is still new, it needs to diversify its research and development activities and collaborate internationally to optimize the utilization of its resources and meet the purchasing power of the domestic EV market. Finally, this study summarized six key factors to support Indonesia’s ambition to be a new regional hub for EVs. These factors are: (1) pricing, (2) technology, (3) policy, (4) investment, (5) infrastructure, and (6) compliance with sustainability standards.

From Materials to Cell: State-of-the-Art and Prospective Technologies for Lithium-Ion Battery Electrode Processing

Electrode processing plays an important role in advancing lithium-ion battery technologies and has a significant impact on cell energy density, manufacturing cost, and throughput. Compared to the extensive research on materials development, however, there has been much less effort in this area. In this Review, we outline each step in the electrode processing of lithium-ion batteries from materials to cell assembly, summarize the recent progress in individual steps, deconvolute the interplays between those steps, discuss the underlying constraints, and share some prospective technologies. This Review aims to provide an overview of the whole process in lithium-ion battery fabrication from powder to cell formation and bridge the gap between academic development and industrial manufacturing.

Worth from Waste: Utilizing a Graphite-Rich Fraction from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries as Alternative Reductant in Nickel Slag Cleaning

One possible way of recovering metals from spent lithium-ion batteries is to integrate the recycling with already existing metallurgical processes. This study continues our effort on integrating froth flotation and nickel-slag cleaning process for metal recovery from spent batteries (SBs), using anodic graphite as the main reductant. The SBs used in this study was a froth fraction from flotation of industrially prepared black mass. The effect of different ratios of Ni-slag to SBs on the time-dependent phase formation and metal behavior was investigated. The possible influence of graphite and sulfur contents in the system on the metal alloy/matte formation was described. The trace element (Co, Cu, Ni, and Mn) concentrations in the slag were analyzed using the laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) technique. The distribution coefficients of cobalt and nickel between the metallic or sulfidic phase (metal alloy/matte) and the coexisting slag increased with the increasing amount of SBs in the starting mixture. However, with the increasing concentrations of graphite in the starting mixture (from 0.99 wt.% to 3.97 wt.%), the Fe concentration in both metal alloy and matte also increased (from 29 wt.% to 68 wt.% and from 7 wt.% to 49 wt.%, respectively), which may be challenging if further hydrometallurgical treatment is expected. Therefore, the composition of metal alloy/matte must be adjusted depending on the further steps for metal recovery.

Life Cycle Assessment of an NMC Battery for Application to Electric Light-Duty Commercial Vehicles and Comparison with a Sodium-Nickel-Chloride Battery

This paper presents the results of an environmental assessment of a Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt (NMC) Lithium-ion traction battery for Battery Electric Light-Duty Commercial Vehicles (BEV-LDCV) used for urban and regional freight haulage. A cradle-to-grave Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) of NMC111 is provided, operation and end-of-life stages are included, and insight is also given into a Life Cycle Assessment of different NMC chemistries. The environmental impacts of the manufacturing stages of the NMC111 battery are then compared with those of a Sodium-Nickel-Chloride (ZEBRA) battery. In the second part of the work, two electric-battery LDCVs (powered with NMC111 and ZEBRA batteries, respectively) and a diesel urban LDCV are analysed, considering a wide set of environmental impact categories. The results show that the NMC111 battery has the highest impacts from production in most of the impact categories. Active cathode material, Aluminium, Copper, and energy use for battery production are the main contributors to the environmental impact. However, when vehicle application is investigated, NMC111-BEV shows lower environmental impacts, in all the impact categories, than ZEBRA-BEV. This is mainly due to the greater efficiency of the NMC111 battery during vehicle operation. Finally, when comparing BEVs to a diesel LDCV, the electric powertrains show advantages over the diesel one as far as global warming, abiotic depletion potential-fossil fuels, photochemical oxidation, and ozone layer depletion are concerned. However, the diesel LDCV performs better in almost all the other investigated impact categories.

Scalable Life-Cycle Inventory for Heavy-Duty Vehicle Production

The transportation sector needs to significantly lower greenhouse gas emissions. European manufacturers in particular must develop new vehicles and powertrains to comply with recent regulations and avoid fines for exceeding C O 2 emissions. To answer the question regarding which powertrain concept provides the best option to lower the environmental impacts, it is necessary to evaluate all vehicle life-cycle phases. Different system boundaries and scopes of the current state of science complicate a holistic impact assessment. This paper presents a scaleable life-cycle inventory (LCI) for heavy-duty trucks and powertrains components. We combine primary and secondary data to compile a component-based inventory and apply it to internal combustion engine (ICE), hybrid and battery electric vehicles (BEV). The vehicles are configured with regard to their powertrain topology and the components are scaled according to weight models. The resulting material compositions are modeled with LCA software to obtain global warming potential and primary energy demand. Especially for BEV, decisions in product development strongly influence the vehicle’s environmental impact. Our results show that the lithium-ion battery must be considered the most critical component for electrified powertrain concepts. Furthermore, the results highlight the importance of considering the vehicle production phase.

Integrating Flotation and Pyrometallurgy for Recovering Graphite and Valuable Metals from Battery Scrap

Since the current volumes of collected end-of-life lithium ion batteries (LIBs) are low, one option to increase the feasibility of their recycling is to feed them to existing metals production processes. This work presents a novel approach to integrate froth flotation as a mechanical treatment to optimize the recovery of valuable metals from LIB scrap and minimize their loss in the nickel slag cleaning process. Additionally, the conventional reducing agent in slag cleaning, namely coke, is replaced with graphite contained in the LIB waste flotation products. Using proper conditioning procedures, froth flotation was able to recover up to 81.3% Co in active materials from a Cu-Al rich feed stream. A selected froth product was used as feed for nickel slag cleaning process, and the recovery of metals from a slag (80%)–froth fraction (20%) mixture was investigated in an inert atmosphere at 1350 °C and 1400 °C at varying reduction times. The experimental conditions in combination with the graphite allowed for a very rapid reduction. After 5 min reduction time, the valuable metals Co, Ni, and Cu were found to be distributed to the iron rich metal alloy, while the remaining fraction of Mn and Al present in the froth fraction was deported in the slag.

Li-Ion Batteries: A Review of a Key Technology for Transport Decarbonization

Lithium ion batteries are experiencing an increased success thanks to their interesting performances, in particular for electric vehicles applications. Their continuous technological improvements in the last years are providing higher energy density and lower manufacturing costs. However, the environmental performance of their supply chain is of paramount importance to guarantee a cleaner alternative to fossil-based solutions on the entire life cycle of the applications. This paper carries out a comprehensive review on the main aspects related to Li-ion batteries manufacturing, to support the readers in understanding the complexity of the subject and the main challenges and opportunities for the future developments of this technology. The paper discusses the expected future demand of batteries; the main aspects related to the supply chain, including existing assets, input materials and alternative technologies; the end-of-life of batteries; the environmental impacts; and the main geopolitical implications.

Understanding the Electrode/Electrolyte Interface Layer on the Li-Rich Nickel Manganese Cobalt Layered Oxide Cathode by XPS

Layered lithium-rich nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LR-NMC) represents one of the most promising cathode materials for application in high energy density lithium-ion batteries. The extraordinary capacity delivered derives from a combination of both cationic and anionic redox processes. However, the latter ones lead to oxygen evolution which triggers structural degradation and electrode/electrolyte interface (EEI) instability that hinders the use of LR-NMC in practical application. In this work, we investigate the surface chemistry of LR-NMC and its evolution upon different conditions to give further insights into the processes occurring at the EEI. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy studies reveal that once the organic component of the layer is formed, it remains stable independently on the higher cutoff voltage applied, while continuous growth of inorganics along with oxygen evolution occurs. The results performed on lithiated and delithiated LR-NMC surfaces indicate an instability of the EEI layer formed at high voltages, which undergoes a partial decomposition. Furthermore, the tris(pentafluorophenyl)borane electrolyte additive simultaneously prevents excess LiF formation and changes the chemical composition of the EEI layer. The latter is characterized by a higher amount of poly(ethylene oxide) oligomer species and Li_xPO_yF_z formation. In addition, the presence of boron-containing compounds in the EEI layer cannot be excluded, which may be also responsible of the increased thickness of the EEI layer. Finally, fast kinetics at elevated temperatures exacerbate the salt decomposition which results in the formation of an EEI which is thicker and richer in LiF.

Degradation Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies of Nickel-Rich NMC-Based Lithium-Ion Batteries

Abstract

The demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with high mass-specific capacities, high rate capabilities and long-term cyclabilities is driving the research and development of LIBs with nickel-rich NMC (LiNixMnyCo1−x−yO2, $$x \geqslant 0.5$$x⩾0.5) cathodes and graphite (LixC6) anodes. Based on this, this review will summarize recently reported and widely recognized studies of the degradation mechanisms of Ni-rich NMC cathodes and graphite anodes. And with a broad collection of proposed mechanisms on both atomic and micrometer scales, this review can supplement previous degradation studies of Ni-rich NMC batteries. In addition, this review will categorize advanced mitigation strategies for both electrodes based on different modifications in which Ni-rich NMC cathode improvement strategies involve dopants, gradient layers, surface coatings, carbon matrixes and advanced synthesis methods, whereas graphite anode improvement strategies involve surface coatings, charge/discharge protocols and electrolyte volume estimations. Electrolyte components that can facilitate the stabilization of anodic solid electrolyte interfaces are also reviewed, and trade-offs between modification techniques as well as controversies are discussed for a deeper understanding of the mitigation strategies of Ni-rich NMC/graphite LIBs. Furthermore, this review will present various physical and electrochemical diagnostic tools that are vital in the elucidation of degradation mechanisms during operation to supplement future degradation studies. Finally, this review will summarize current research focuses and propose future research directions.

Graphic Abstract

The demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with high mass specific capacities, high rate capabilities and longterm cyclabilities is driving the research and development of LIBs with nickel-rich NMC (LiNixMnyCo1−x−yO2, x ≥ 0.5) cathodes and graphite (LixC6) anodes. Based on this, this review will summarize recently reported and widely recognized studies of the degradation mechanisms of Ni-rich NMC cathodes and graphite anodes. And with a broad collection of proposed mechanisms on both atomic and micrometer scales, this review can supplement previous degradation studies of Ni-rich NMC batteries. In addition, this review will categorize advanced mitigation strategies for both electrodes based on different modifications in which Ni-rich NMC cathode improvement strategies involve dopants, gradient layers, surface coatings, carbon matrixes and advanced synthesis methods, whereas graphite anode improvement strategies involve surface coatings, charge/discharge protocols and electrolyte volume estimations. Electrolyte components that can facilitate the stabilization of anodic solid-electrolyte interfaces (SEIs) are also reviewed and tradeoffs between modification techniques as well as controversies are discussed for a deeper understanding of the mitigation strategies of Ni-rich NMC/graphite LIBs. Furthermore, this review will present various physical and electrochemical diagnostic tools that are vital in the elucidation of degradation mechanisms during operation to supplement future degradation studies. Finally, this review will summarize current research focuses and propose future research directions.