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Sanchez-Vital R, Casals L, Heer-Salva B, Vidal R, Gomez C, Garcia-Villegas E. Energy Performance of LR-FHSS: Analysis and Evaluation. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:5770. [PMID: 39275681 PMCID: PMC11397901 DOI: 10.3390/s24175770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2024] [Revised: 08/30/2024] [Accepted: 09/04/2024] [Indexed: 09/16/2024]
Abstract
Long-range frequency hopping spread spectrum (LR-FHSS) is a pivotal advancement in the LoRaWAN protocol that is designed to enhance the network's capacity and robustness, particularly in densely populated environments. Although energy consumption is paramount in LoRaWAN-based end devices, this is the first study in the literature, to our knowledge, that models the impact of this novel mechanism on energy consumption. In this article, we provide a comprehensive energy consumption analytical model of LR-FHSS, focusing on three critical metrics: average current consumption, battery lifetime, and energy efficiency of data transmission. The model is based on measurements performed on real hardware in a fully operational LR-FHSS network. While in our evaluation, LR-FHSS can show worse consumption figures than LoRa, we find that with optimal configuration, the battery lifetime of LR-FHSS end devices can reach 2.5 years for a 50 min notification period. For the most energy-efficient payload size, this lifespan can be extended to a theoretical maximum of up to 16 years with a one-day notification interval using a cell-coin battery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger Sanchez-Vital
- Department of Network Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, C/Esteve Terradas, 7, 08860 Castelldefels, Spain
| | - Lluís Casals
- Department of Network Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, C/Esteve Terradas, 7, 08860 Castelldefels, Spain
| | - Bartomeu Heer-Salva
- Department of Network Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, C/Esteve Terradas, 7, 08860 Castelldefels, Spain
| | - Rafael Vidal
- Department of Network Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, C/Esteve Terradas, 7, 08860 Castelldefels, Spain
| | - Carles Gomez
- Department of Network Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, C/Esteve Terradas, 7, 08860 Castelldefels, Spain
| | - Eduard Garcia-Villegas
- Department of Network Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, C/Esteve Terradas, 7, 08860 Castelldefels, Spain
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2
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Harvanek M, Bolcek J, Kufa J, Polak L, Simka M, Marsalek R. Survey on 5G Physical Layer Security Threats and Countermeasures. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:5523. [PMID: 39275434 PMCID: PMC11397919 DOI: 10.3390/s24175523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2024] [Revised: 08/11/2024] [Accepted: 08/12/2024] [Indexed: 09/16/2024]
Abstract
With the expansion of wireless mobile networks into both the daily lives of individuals as well as into the widely developing market of connected devices, communication is an increasingly attractive target for attackers. As the complexity of mobile cellular systems grows and the respective countermeasures are implemented to secure data transmissions, the attacks have become increasingly sophisticated on the one hand, but at the same time the system complexity can open up expanded opportunities for security and privacy breaches. After an in-depth summary of possible entry points to attacks to mobile networks, this paper first briefly reviews the basic principles of the physical layer implementation of 4G/5G systems, then gives an overview of possible attacks from a physical layer perspective. It also provides an overview of the software frameworks and hardware tool-software defined radios currently in use for experimenting with 4G/5G mobile networks, and it discusses their basic capabilities. In the final part, the paper summarizes the currently most promising families of techniques to detect illegitimate base stations-the machine-learning-based, localization-based, and behavior-based methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Harvanek
- Department of Radio Electronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 3082/12, 616 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Bolcek
- Department of Radio Electronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 3082/12, 616 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Kufa
- Department of Radio Electronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 3082/12, 616 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ladislav Polak
- Department of Radio Electronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 3082/12, 616 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Marek Simka
- Department of Radio Electronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 3082/12, 616 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Roman Marsalek
- Department of Radio Electronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Communication, Brno University of Technology, Technicka 3082/12, 616 00 Brno, Czech Republic
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3
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Alkhayyal M, Mostafa A. Recent Developments in AI and ML for IoT: A Systematic Literature Review on LoRaWAN Energy Efficiency and Performance Optimization. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:4482. [PMID: 39065882 PMCID: PMC11281262 DOI: 10.3390/s24144482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2024] [Revised: 06/29/2024] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
The field of the Internet of Things (IoT) is dominating various areas of technology. As the number of devices has increased, there is a need for efficient communication with low resource consumption and energy efficiency. Low Power Wide Area Networks (LPWANs) have emerged as a transformative technology for the IoT as they provide long-range communication capabilities with low power consumption. Among the various LPWAN technologies, Long Range Wide Area Networks (LoRaWAN) are widely adopted due to their open standard architecture, which supports secure, bi-directional communication and is particularly effective in outdoor and complex urban environments. This technology is helpful in enabling a variety of IoT applications that require wide coverage and long battery life, such as smart cities, industrial IoT, and environmental monitoring. The integration of Machine Leaning (ML) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) into LoRaWAN operations has further enhanced its capability and particularly optimized resource allocation and energy efficiency. This systematic literature review provides a comprehensive examination of the integration of ML and AI technologies in the optimization of LPWANs, with a specific focus on LoRaWAN. This review follows the PRISMA model and systematically synthesizes current research to highlight how ML and AI enhance operational efficiency, particularly in terms of energy consumption, resource management, and network stability. The SLR aims to review the key methods and techniques that are used in state-of-the-art LoRaWAN to enhance the overall network performance. We identified 25 relevant primary studies. The study provides an analysis of key findings based on research questions on how various LoRaWAN parameters are optimized through advanced ML, DL, and RL techniques to achieve optimized performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maram Alkhayyal
- Department of Information Systems, College of Computers and Information Sciences, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh 11564, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Information Systems, College of Computers and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia
| | - Almetwally Mostafa
- Department of Information Systems, College of Computers and Information Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia
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4
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Islam M, Jamil HMM, Pranto SA, Das RK, Amin A, Khan A. Future Industrial Applications: Exploring LPWAN-Driven IoT Protocols. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:2509. [PMID: 38676127 PMCID: PMC11054578 DOI: 10.3390/s24082509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2024] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
The Internet of Things (IoT) will bring about the next industrial revolution in Industry 4.0. The communication aspect of IoT devices is one of the most critical factors in choosing the device that is suitable for use. Thus far, the IoT physical layer communication challenges have been met with various communications protocols that provide varying strengths and weaknesses. This paper summarizes the network architectures of some of the most popular IoT wireless communications protocols. It also presents a comparative analysis of some of the critical features, including power consumption, coverage, data rate, security, cost, and quality of service (QoS). This comparative study shows that low-power wide area network (LPWAN)-based IoT protocols (LoRa, Sigfox, NB-IoT, LTE-M) are more suitable for future industrial applications because of their energy efficiency, high coverage, and cost efficiency. In addition, the study also presents an Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) application perspective on the suitability of LPWAN protocols in a particular scenario and addresses some open issues that need to be researched. Thus, this study can assist in deciding the most suitable IoT communication protocol for an industrial and production field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahbubul Islam
- Department of Computer Science, United International University, Dhaka 1212, Bangladesh;
| | - Hossain Md. Mubashshir Jamil
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Islamic University of Technology, Gazipur 1704, Bangladesh; (H.M.M.J.); (S.A.P.)
| | - Samiul Ahsan Pranto
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Islamic University of Technology, Gazipur 1704, Bangladesh; (H.M.M.J.); (S.A.P.)
| | - Rupak Kumar Das
- College of Information Sciences and Technology, Pennsylvania State University—University Park, University Park, PA 16802, USA;
| | - Al Amin
- Department of Information Systems, University of Maryland—Baltimore, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA;
| | - Arshia Khan
- Department of Computer Science, University of Minnesota—Duluth, Duluth, MN 55812, USA
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5
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Plastras S, Tsoumatidis D, Skoutas DN, Rouskas A, Kormentzas G, Skianis C. Non-Terrestrial Networks for Energy-Efficient Connectivity of Remote IoT Devices in the 6G Era: A Survey. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:1227. [PMID: 38400391 PMCID: PMC10891744 DOI: 10.3390/s24041227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Revised: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
The Internet of Things (IoT) is gaining popularity and market share, driven by its ability to connect devices and systems that were previously siloed, enabling new applications and services in a cost-efficient manner. Thus, the IoT fuels societal transformation and enables groundbreaking innovations like autonomous transport, robotic assistance, and remote healthcare solutions. However, when considering the Internet of Remote Things (IoRT), which refers to the expansion of IoT in remote and geographically isolated areas where neither terrestrial nor cellular networks are available, internet connectivity becomes a challenging issue. Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTNs) are increasingly gaining popularity as a solution to provide connectivity in remote areas due to the growing integration of satellites and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) with cellular networks. In this survey, we provide the technological framework for NTNs and Remote IoT, followed by a classification of the most recent scientific research on NTN-based IoRT systems. Therefore, we provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of research in IoRT and identify emerging research areas with high potential. In conclusion, we present and discuss 3GPP's roadmap for NTN standardization, which aims to establish an energy-efficient IoRT environment in the 6G era.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanos Plastras
- Department of Information and Communication Systems Engineering, University of the Aegean, 83200 Samos, Greece; (D.T.); (D.N.S.); (G.K.); (C.S.)
| | - Dimitrios Tsoumatidis
- Department of Information and Communication Systems Engineering, University of the Aegean, 83200 Samos, Greece; (D.T.); (D.N.S.); (G.K.); (C.S.)
| | - Dimitrios N. Skoutas
- Department of Information and Communication Systems Engineering, University of the Aegean, 83200 Samos, Greece; (D.T.); (D.N.S.); (G.K.); (C.S.)
| | - Angelos Rouskas
- Department of Digital Systems, University of Piraeus, 18532 Piraeus, Greece;
| | - Georgios Kormentzas
- Department of Information and Communication Systems Engineering, University of the Aegean, 83200 Samos, Greece; (D.T.); (D.N.S.); (G.K.); (C.S.)
| | - Charalabos Skianis
- Department of Information and Communication Systems Engineering, University of the Aegean, 83200 Samos, Greece; (D.T.); (D.N.S.); (G.K.); (C.S.)
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6
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Bonilla V, Campoverde B, Yoo SG. A Systematic Literature Review of LoRaWAN: Sensors and Applications. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:8440. [PMID: 37896533 PMCID: PMC10611380 DOI: 10.3390/s23208440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
LoRaWAN is a communication protocol designed especially for Internet of Things (IoT) applications that offers benefits such as long-distance connection and low power consumption. Due to the characteristics of LoRaWAN, this technology has gained great popularity in various IoT applications, such as environmental monitoring, smart agriculture, and applications in the areas of health and mobility, among others. Given this situation, the objective of this work is to provide an in-depth overview of LoRaWAN technology in terms of its applications, as well as the devices that have been used for the development of such applications. Additionally, this work reviews what other areas of LoRaWAN have been covered in different scientific articles, i.e., performance improvement and security. Among the main results of this study though analyzing previous works, we can say that most of them have been developed in the area of environmental monitoring and have used low-cost devices such as Arduinos, Raspberry Pis, and relatively low-cost commercial products such as those of the Semtech and STMicroelectronics brands. The analysis of the present work shows objectively and formally that LoRaWAN technology can be applied in various applications and that there are many studies that try to optimize its performance and security. This paper seeks to identify and describe the most relevant applications of LoRaWAN in different sectors, such as agriculture, health, and environmental monitoring, among others, and the challenges and solutions found in each area. This literature review will provide a valuable reference to understand the potential and opportunities offered by LoRaWAN technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicky Bonilla
- Departamento de Informática y Ciencias de la Computación, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito 170525, Ecuador
- Smart Lab, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito 170525, Ecuador
| | - Brandon Campoverde
- Departamento de Informática y Ciencias de la Computación, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito 170525, Ecuador
- Smart Lab, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito 170525, Ecuador
| | - Sang Guun Yoo
- Departamento de Informática y Ciencias de la Computación, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito 170525, Ecuador
- Smart Lab, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Quito 170525, Ecuador
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7
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Fadhil MJ, Gharghan SK, Saeed TR. Air pollution forecasting based on wireless communications: review. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2023; 195:1152. [PMID: 37670163 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-023-11756-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/07/2023]
Abstract
The development of contemporary artificial intelligence (AI) methods such as artificial neural networks (ANNs) has given researchers around the world new opportunities to address climate change and air quality issues. The small size, low cost, and low power consumption of sensors can facilitate obtaining the values of polluting gases in the atmosphere. However, several problems with using air pollution technique relate to various effects such as sensing accuracy, sensor drifts, and sluggish reactions to changes in pollution levels. Recently, machine learning has made it feasible to build a more intelligent, context-aware system that can anticipate events and monitor present conditions. This paper focuses on the use of environment sensors for detecting air pollution based on several types of wireless protocols, including Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, ZigBee, LoRa, Global Positioning System (GPS), and 4G/5G. Furthermore, it classifies previous published articles on the topic according to the wireless protocol and compared in terms of several performance metrics such as the adopted air pollution sensors, hardware platform, adopted algorithm, power consumption or power savings, and sensing accuracy. In addition, this work highlights the challenges and limitations facing drones during their mission for detecting air pollution. As a result, we suggest to build and implement at base station an intelligent system based on backpropagation (BP) neural networks, which provides flexibility to track and predict the true values of polluting gases in the atmosphere to overcome the above problems. Finally, this work addresses the advantages of using drones in the air pollution field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muthna J Fadhil
- Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq.
- Middle Technical University, Electrical Engineering Technical College, Baghdad, Iraq.
| | - Sadik Kamel Gharghan
- Middle Technical University, Electrical Engineering Technical College, Baghdad, Iraq
| | - Thamir R Saeed
- Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq
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8
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Ragnoli M, Scarsella M, Leoni A, Ferri G, Stornelli V. Wireless Sensor Network-Based Rockfall and Landslide Monitoring Systems: A Review. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:7278. [PMID: 37631814 PMCID: PMC10459084 DOI: 10.3390/s23167278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
Rockfalls and landslide events are caused by different factors among which are included geomorphological and climatic factors and also human interaction. Therefore, the economic and social impacts can be significant and the remote monitoring of such hazards has become an essential topic in various applications. Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are well suited for the deployment of monitoring systems, benefiting from the different technologies and topologies that are available and evolving nowadays. This review paper aims to summarize and overview the up-to-date state of the art of rockfall and landslide monitoring systems based on WSNs. The implementation and methods were analyzed for each solution, along with the system architecture and relevant hardware aspects. All the retrieved data were used to analyze the current trends and future possibilities in the field of WSN geohazard monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Ragnoli
- Department of Industrial and Information Engineering and Economics, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy; (M.S.); (A.L.); (G.F.); (V.S.)
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9
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Pons M, Valenzuela E, Rodríguez B, Nolazco-Flores JA, Del-Valle-Soto C. Utilization of 5G Technologies in IoT Applications: Current Limitations by Interference and Network Optimization Difficulties-A Review. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:3876. [PMID: 37112216 PMCID: PMC10144169 DOI: 10.3390/s23083876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
5G (fifth-generation technology) technologies are becoming more mainstream thanks to great efforts from telecommunication companies, research facilities, and governments. This technology is often associated with the Internet of Things to improve the quality of life for citizens by automating and gathering data recollection processes. This paper presents the 5G and IoT technologies, explaining common architectures, typical IoT implementations, and recurring problems. This work also presents a detailed and explained overview of interference in general wireless applications, interference unique to 5G and IoT, and possible optimization techniques to overcome these challenges. This manuscript highlights the importance of addressing interference and optimizing network performance in 5G networks to ensure reliable and efficient connectivity for IoT devices, which is essential for adequately functioning business processes. This insight can be helpful for businesses that rely on these technologies to improve their productivity, reduce downtime, and enhance customer satisfaction. We also highlight the potential of the convergence of networks and services in increasing the availability and speed of access to the internet, enabling a range of new and innovative applications and services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Pons
- Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad del Istmo, Km 19.2 Carretera a Fraijanes, Fraijanes 01062, Guatemala; (M.P.); (E.V.); (B.R.)
| | - Estuardo Valenzuela
- Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad del Istmo, Km 19.2 Carretera a Fraijanes, Fraijanes 01062, Guatemala; (M.P.); (E.V.); (B.R.)
| | - Brandon Rodríguez
- Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad del Istmo, Km 19.2 Carretera a Fraijanes, Fraijanes 01062, Guatemala; (M.P.); (E.V.); (B.R.)
| | - Juan Arturo Nolazco-Flores
- School of Engineering and Science, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Av. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, Monterrey 64849, NL, Mexico;
| | - Carolina Del-Valle-Soto
- Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Panamericana, Álvaro del Portillo 49, Zapopan 45010, JA, Mexico
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10
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Bouzidi M, Amro A, Dalveren Y, Alaya Cheikh F, Derawi M. LPWAN Cyber Security Risk Analysis: Building a Secure IQRF Solution. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:2078. [PMID: 36850676 PMCID: PMC9967461 DOI: 10.3390/s23042078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Low-power wide area network (LPWAN) technologies such as IQRF are becoming increasingly popular for a variety of Internet of Things (IoT) applications, including smart cities, industrial control, and home automation. However, LPWANs are vulnerable to cyber attacks that can disrupt the normal operation of the network or compromise sensitive information. Therefore, analyzing cybersecurity risks before deploying an LPWAN is essential, as it helps identify potential vulnerabilities and threats as well as allowing for proactive measures to be taken to secure the network and protect against potential attacks. In this paper, a security risk analysis of IQRF technology is conducted utilizing the failure mode effects analysis (FMEA) method. The results of this study indicate that the highest risk corresponds to four failure modes, namely compromised end nodes, a compromised coordinator, a compromised gateway and a compromised communication between nodes. Moreover, through this methodology, a qualitative risk evaluation is performed to identify potential security threats in the IQRF network and propose countermeasures to mitigate the risk of cyber attacks on IQRF networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Bouzidi
- Department of Electronic Systems, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2821 Gjøvik, Norway
| | - Ahmed Amro
- Department of Information Security and Communication Technology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2821 Gjøvik, Norway
| | - Yaser Dalveren
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Atilim University, Incek Golbasi, 06830 Ankara, Turkey
| | - Faouzi Alaya Cheikh
- Department of Computer Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2821 Gjøvik, Norway
| | - Mohammad Derawi
- Department of Electronic Systems, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2821 Gjøvik, Norway
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11
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Brito T, Azevedo BF, Mendes J, Zorawski M, Fernandes FP, Pereira AI, Rufino J, Lima J, Costa P. Data Acquisition Filtering Focused on Optimizing Transmission in a LoRaWAN Network Applied to the WSN Forest Monitoring System. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:1282. [PMID: 36772322 PMCID: PMC9921254 DOI: 10.3390/s23031282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Developing innovative systems and operations to monitor forests and send alerts in dangerous situations, such as fires, has become, over the years, a necessary task to protect forests. In this work, a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is employed for forest data acquisition to identify abrupt anomalies when a fire ignition starts. Even though a low-power LoRaWAN network is used, each module still needs to save power as much as possible to avoid periodic maintenance since a current consumption peak happens while sending messages. Moreover, considering the LoRaWAN characteristics, each module should use the bandwidth only when essential. Therefore, four algorithms were tested and calibrated along real and monitored events of a wildfire. The first algorithm is based on the Exponential Smoothing method, Moving Averages techniques are used to define the other two algorithms, and the fourth uses the Least Mean Square. When properly combined, the algorithms can perform a pre-filtering data acquisition before each module uses the LoRaWAN network and, consequently, save energy if there is no necessity to send data. After the validations, using Wildfire Simulation Events (WSE), the developed filter achieves an accuracy rate of 0.73 with 0.5 possible false alerts. These rates do not represent a final warning to firefighters, and a possible improvement can be achieved through cloud-based server algorithms. By comparing the current consumption before and after the proposed implementation, the modules can save almost 53% of their batteries when is no demand to send data. At the same time, the modules can maintain the server informed with a minimum interval of 15 min and recognize abrupt changes in 60 s when fire ignition appears.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thadeu Brito
- Research Centre in Digitalization and Intelligent Robotics CeDRI, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-252 Bragança, Portugal
- Laboratório para a Sustentabilidade e Tecnologia em Regiões de Montanha (SusTEC), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-252 Bragança, Portugal
- INESC TEC—INESC Technology and Science, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Beatriz Flamia Azevedo
- Research Centre in Digitalization and Intelligent Robotics CeDRI, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-252 Bragança, Portugal
- Laboratório para a Sustentabilidade e Tecnologia em Regiões de Montanha (SusTEC), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-252 Bragança, Portugal
- Algoritmi Research Centre/LASI, Campus Azurém, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal
| | - João Mendes
- Research Centre in Digitalization and Intelligent Robotics CeDRI, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-252 Bragança, Portugal
- Laboratório para a Sustentabilidade e Tecnologia em Regiões de Montanha (SusTEC), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-252 Bragança, Portugal
- Algoritmi Research Centre/LASI, Campus Azurém, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Matheus Zorawski
- Research Centre in Digitalization and Intelligent Robotics CeDRI, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-252 Bragança, Portugal
- Laboratório para a Sustentabilidade e Tecnologia em Regiões de Montanha (SusTEC), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-252 Bragança, Portugal
| | - Florbela P. Fernandes
- Research Centre in Digitalization and Intelligent Robotics CeDRI, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-252 Bragança, Portugal
- Laboratório para a Sustentabilidade e Tecnologia em Regiões de Montanha (SusTEC), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-252 Bragança, Portugal
| | - Ana I. Pereira
- Research Centre in Digitalization and Intelligent Robotics CeDRI, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-252 Bragança, Portugal
- Laboratório para a Sustentabilidade e Tecnologia em Regiões de Montanha (SusTEC), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-252 Bragança, Portugal
- Algoritmi Research Centre/LASI, Campus Azurém, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal
| | - José Rufino
- Research Centre in Digitalization and Intelligent Robotics CeDRI, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-252 Bragança, Portugal
- Laboratório para a Sustentabilidade e Tecnologia em Regiões de Montanha (SusTEC), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-252 Bragança, Portugal
| | - José Lima
- Research Centre in Digitalization and Intelligent Robotics CeDRI, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-252 Bragança, Portugal
- Laboratório para a Sustentabilidade e Tecnologia em Regiões de Montanha (SusTEC), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, 5300-252 Bragança, Portugal
- INESC TEC—INESC Technology and Science, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Paulo Costa
- INESC TEC—INESC Technology and Science, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
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12
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Requirements, Deployments, and Challenges of LoRa Technology: A Survey. COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND NEUROSCIENCE 2023; 2023:5183062. [PMID: 36654727 PMCID: PMC9842427 DOI: 10.1155/2023/5183062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Revised: 12/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
LoRa is an ISM-band based LPWAN communication protocol. Despite their wide network penetration of approximately 20 kilometers or higher using lower than 14 decibels transmitting power, it has been extensively documented and used in academia and industry. Although LoRa connectivity defines a public platform and enables users to create independent low-power wireless connections while relying on external architecture, it has gained considerable interest from scholars and the market. The two fundamental components of this platform are LoRaWAN and LoRa PHY. The consumer LoRaWAN component of the technology describes the network model, connectivity procedures, ability to operate the frequency range, and the types of interlinked gadgets. In contrast, the LoRa PHY component is patentable and provides information on the modulation strategy which is being utilized and its attributes. There are now several LoRa platforms available. To create usable LoRa systems, there are presently several technical difficulties to be overcome, such as connection management, allocation of resources, consistent communications, and security. This study presents a thorough overview of LoRa networking, covering the technological difficulties in setting up LoRa infrastructures and current solutions. Several outstanding challenges of LoRa communication are presented depending on our thorough research of the available solutions. The research report aims to stimulate additional research toward enhancing the LoRa Network capacity and allowing more realistic installations.
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13
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Boulouard Z, Ouaissa M, Ouaissa M, Siddiqui F, Almutiq M, Krichen M. An Integrated Artificial Intelligence of Things Environment for River Flood Prevention. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:9485. [PMID: 36502187 PMCID: PMC9740278 DOI: 10.3390/s22239485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
River floods are listed among the natural disasters that can directly influence different aspects of life, ranging from human lives, to economy, infrastructure, agriculture, etc. Organizations are investing heavily in research to find more efficient approaches to prevent them. The Artificial Intelligence of Things (AIoT) is a recent concept that combines the best of both Artificial Intelligence and Internet of Things, and has already demonstrated its capabilities in different fields. In this paper, we introduce an AIoT architecture where river flood sensors, in each region, can transmit their data via the LoRaWAN to their closest local broadcast center. The latter will relay the collected data via 4G/5G to a centralized cloud server that will analyze the data, predict the status of the rivers countrywide using an efficient Artificial Intelligence approach, and thus, help prevent eventual floods. This approach has proven its efficiency at every level. On the one hand, the LoRaWAN-based communication between sensor nodes and broadcast centers has provided a lower energy consumption and a wider range. On the other hand, the Artificial Intelligence-based data analysis has provided better river flood predictions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mariyam Ouaissa
- Department of Computer Science, Moulay Ismail University, Meknes 50050, Morocco
| | - Mariya Ouaissa
- Department of Computer Science, Moulay Ismail University, Meknes 50050, Morocco
| | - Farhan Siddiqui
- Data Science Department, NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
| | - Mutiq Almutiq
- Department of Management Information Systems and Production Management, College of Business and Economics, Qassim University, P.O. Box 6640, Buraidah 51452, Saudi Arabia
| | - Moez Krichen
- FCSIT, Al-Baha University, Al-Baha 65528, Saudi Arabia
- ReDCAD Laboratory, University of Sfax, Sfax 3038, Tunisia
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14
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Ragnoli M, Colaiuda D, Leoni A, Ferri G, Barile G, Rotilio M, Laurini E, De Berardinis P, Stornelli V. A LoRaWAN Multi-Technological Architecture for Construction Site Monitoring. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:s22228685. [PMID: 36433281 PMCID: PMC9696629 DOI: 10.3390/s22228685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
It is necessary to ensure safety in terms of health and accidents through the real-time monitoring of the construction site environment and workers. This problem has become of great importance due to the economic and social implications. Therefore, a sensor-based approach has been found to be beneficial in Building Information Modeling (BIM). Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) technologies are well-suited for the deployment of monitoring systems. A suitable technical solution for node communication in a WSN is Long Range (LoRa) modulation technology. In this study, an autonomous LoRa-based system for the monitoring of a construction site in Lungro, Calabria, Italy, is presented. The spatial monitoring of working personnel is achieved by employing a tracker device with an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) and a Global Positioning System (GPS) device. Accesses of personnel and gear to the site are registered using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags equipped with protective gear. Fixed-position solar-powered sensor nodes are also employed for structural monitoring, i.e., movement sensors are used to monitor the variation of scaffolding, building structures, and under-work housing inclinations. Long Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN) gateways interface with the nodes and the internet for data exchange, enabling an Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm for the monitoring solution. A comprehensive overview of the workers and structural nodes, along with the RFID access management system and LoRaWAN gateway features, is provided in this article. A description of the web interface is also reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Ragnoli
- Department of Industrial and Information Engineering, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Davide Colaiuda
- Department of Industrial and Information Engineering, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Alfiero Leoni
- Department of Industrial and Information Engineering, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Ferri
- Department of Industrial and Information Engineering, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Gianluca Barile
- Department of Industrial and Information Engineering, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
- Design Methodologies for Embedded Controllers, Wireless Interconnect and System-on-Chip, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Marianna Rotilio
- Department of Civil, Construction-Architectural and Environmental Engineering, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Eleonora Laurini
- Department of Civil, Construction-Architectural and Environmental Engineering, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Pierluigi De Berardinis
- Department of Civil, Construction-Architectural and Environmental Engineering, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Stornelli
- Department of Industrial and Information Engineering, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
- Design Methodologies for Embedded Controllers, Wireless Interconnect and System-on-Chip, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
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15
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Prapas A, Kantelis KF, Nicopolitidis P, Papadimitriou GI. An On-Demand TDMA Approach Optimized for Low-Latency IoT Applications. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:6461. [PMID: 36080921 PMCID: PMC9460140 DOI: 10.3390/s22176461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The never-ending evolution of the Internet of Things ecosystem is reshaping the arena of wireless communications and competing against conventional networking solutions in fields such as battery life, device and deployment cost, coverage, and support for an immense number of devices. Inspired by this phenomenon, this paper presents a novel Medium Access Control protocol utilizing long-range technology, based on a Time Division Multiple Access communication protocol variant, adjusted to make better use of each device's hardware. Focusing on Low Power Wide Area Network applications, this implementation improves data latency and offers amplified performance due to better network awareness and dynamic time slot rescheduling. Various simulation scenarios were contrived to evaluate the protocol's performance. The results instate the proposed algorithm as a promising access scheme for the IoT field.
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16
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Xu Z, Wu W, Cai Y, Liu X, Jiang Y. A new wearable brace monitoring multiple physiological parameters based on the nb-iot technique. J MECH MED BIOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1142/s0219519422400413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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17
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Ogbodo EU, Abu-Mahfouz AM, Kurien AM. A Survey on 5G and LPWAN-IoT for Improved Smart Cities and Remote Area Applications: From the Aspect of Architecture and Security. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:6313. [PMID: 36016078 PMCID: PMC9412619 DOI: 10.3390/s22166313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Addressing the recent trend of the massive demand for resources and ubiquitous use for all citizens has led to the conceptualization of technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT) and smart cities. Ubiquitous IoT connectivity can be achieved to serve both urban and underserved remote areas such as rural communities by deploying 5G mobile networks with Low Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN). The current architectures will not offer flexible connectivity to many IoT applications due to high service demand, data exchange, emerging technologies, and security challenges. Hence, this paper explores various architectures that consider a hybrid 5G-LPWAN-IoT and Smart Cities. This includes security challenges as well as endogenous security and solutions in 5G and LPWAN-IoT. The slicing of virtual networks using software-defined network (SDN)/network function virtualization (NFV) based on the different quality of service (QoS) to satisfy different services and quality of experience (QoE) is presented. Also, a strategy that considers the implementation of 5G jointly with Weightless-N (TVWS) technologies to reduce the cell edge interference is considered. Discussions on the need for ubiquity connectivity leveraging 5G and LPWAN-IoT are presented. In addition, future research directions are presented, including a unified 5G network and LPWAN-IoT architecture that will holistically support integration with emerging technologies and endogenous security for improved/secured smart cities and remote areas IoT applications. Finally, the use of LPWAN jointly with low earth orbit (LEO) satellites for ubiquitous IoT connectivity is advocated in this paper.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Adnan M. Abu-Mahfouz
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria 0001, South Africa
- Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Pretoria 0001, South Africa
| | - Anish M. Kurien
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria 0001, South Africa
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18
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Soares SM, Carvalho MM. An Analytical Model for the Aggregate Throughput of IEEE 802.11ah Networks under the Restricted Access Window Mechanism. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:5561. [PMID: 35898065 PMCID: PMC9331850 DOI: 10.3390/s22155561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The IEEE 802.11ah is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard to support the growth of the Internet of Things (IoT). One of its main novelties is the restricted access window (RAW), which is a channel access feature designed to reduce channel contention by dividing stations into RAW groups. Each RAW group is further divided into RAW slots, and stations only attempt channel access during the RAW slot they were assigned to. In this paper, we propose a discrete-time Markov chain model to evaluate the average aggregate throughput of IEEE 802.11ah networks using the RAW mechanism under saturated traffic and ideal channel conditions. The proposed analytical model describes the behavior of an active station within its assigned RAW slot. A key aspect of the model is the consideration of the event of RAW slot time completion during a station's backoff operation. We study the average aggregate network throughput for various numbers of RAW slots and stations in the network. The numerical results derived from our analytical model are compared to computer simulations based on an IEEE 802.11ah model developed for the ns-3 simulator by other researchers, and its performance is also compared to two other analytical models proposed in the literature. The presented results indicate that the proposed analytical model reaches the closest agreement with independently-derived computer simulations.
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19
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LPWAN Key Exchange: A Centralised Lightweight Approach. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22135065. [PMID: 35808559 PMCID: PMC9269823 DOI: 10.3390/s22135065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The Internet of Things (IoT) is one of the fastest emerging technologies in the industry. It includes diverse applications with different requirements to provide services to users. Secure, low-powered, and long-range transmissions are some of the most vital requirements in developing IoT applications. IoT uses several communication technologies to fulfill transmission requirements. However, Low Powered Wide Area Networks (LPWAN) transmission standards have been gaining attention because of their exceptional low-powered and long-distance transmission capabilities. The features of LPWAN transmission standards make them a perfect candidate for IoT applications. However, the current LPWAN standards lack state-of-the-art security mechanism s because of the limitations of the IoT devices in energy and computational capacity. Most of the LPWAN standards, such as Sigfox, NB-IoT, and Weightless, use static keys for node authentication and encryption. LoRaWAN is the only LPWAN technology providing session key mechanisms for better security. However, the session key mechanism is vulnerable to replay attacks. In this paper, we propose a centralized lightweight session key mechanism for LPWAN standards using the Blom-Yang key agreement (BYka) mechanism. The security of the session key mechanism is tested using the security verification tool Scyther. In addition, an energy consumption model is implemented on the LoRaWAN protocol using the NS3 simulator to verify the energy depletion in a LoRaWAN node because of the proposed session key mechanisms. The proposed session key is also verified on the Mininet-WiFi emulator for its correctness. The analysis demonstrates that the proposed session key mechanism uses a fewer number of transmissions than the existing session key mechanisms in LPWAN and provides mechanisms against replay attacks that are possible in current LPWAN session key schemes.
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20
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A Communication Framework for Image Transmission through LPWAN Technology. ELECTRONICS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/electronics11111764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Analyzing the conditions of use and selecting which technology is more efficient to apply is required when transmitting information through wireless networks.The Internet of Things (IoT) has gained traction in industry and academia as a paradigm in which information and communication technologies merge to deliver unique solutions by detecting, actuating, calculating, and sharing massive volumes of data via embedded systems. In this scenario, Low-Power Wide-Area Networks (LPWAN) appear to be an attractive solution for node connectivity. Typical IoT solutions demand flexible restrictions for wireless communication networks in terms of data rates and latency in exchange for having larger communication ranges and low energy consumption. Nonetheless, as the amount of data and data speeds demanded for particular applications increase, such as image transmissions, IoT network connectivity deteriorates. This paper proposes a communication architecture for image transmission across LPWAN networks utilizing LoRa modulation. The framework combines image processing techniques (classification, compressive sensing (CS), and reconstruction) with an investigation of LoRa modulation parameters using a Software-Defined Radio (SDR) environment. The results show that is possible to communicate an image of 128×128 pixels with four packets and one frequency channel in 2.51 s.
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21
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A Universal Testbed for IoT Wireless Technologies: Abstracting Latency, Error Rate and Stability from the IoT Protocol and Hardware Platform. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22114159. [PMID: 35684780 PMCID: PMC9185241 DOI: 10.3390/s22114159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Revised: 05/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
IoT applications rely strongly on the performance of wireless communication networks. There is a wide variety of wireless IoT technologies and choosing one over another depends on the specific use case requirements—be they technical, implementation-related or functional factors. Among the technical factors, latency, error rate and stability are the main parameters that affect communication reliability. In this work, we present the design, development and validation of a Universal Testbed to experimentally measure these parameters, abstracting them from the wireless IoT technology protocols and hardware platforms. The Testbed setup, which is based on a Raspberry Pi 4, only requires the IoT device under test to have digital inputs. We evaluate the Testbed’s accuracy with a temporal characterisation—accumulated response delay—showing an error less than 290 µs, leading to a relative error around 3% for the latencies of most IoT wireless technologies, the latencies of which are usually on the order of tens of milliseconds. Finally, we validate the Testbed’s performance by comparing the latency, error and stability measurements with those expected for the most common IoT wireless technologies: 6LoWPAN, LoRaWAN, Sigfox, Zigbee, Wi-Fi, BLE and NB-IoT.
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22
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Pattnaik SK, Samal SR, Bandopadhaya S, Swain K, Choudhury S, Das JK, Mihovska A, Poulkov V. Future Wireless Communication Technology towards 6G IoT: An Application-Based Analysis of IoT in Real-Time Location Monitoring of Employees Inside Underground Mines by Using BLE. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:3438. [PMID: 35591138 PMCID: PMC9103828 DOI: 10.3390/s22093438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the IoT has emerged as the most promising technology in the key evolution of industry 4.0/industry 5.0, smart home automation (SHA), smart cities, energy savings and many other areas of wireless communication. There is a massively growing number of static and mobile IoT devices with a diversified range of speed and bandwidth, along with a growing demand for high data rates, which makes the network denser and more complicated. In this context, the next-generation communication technology, i.e., sixth generation (6G), is trying to build up the base to meet the imperative need of future network deployment. This article adopts the vision for 6G IoT systems and proposes an IoT-based real-time location monitoring system using Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) for underground communication applications. An application-based analysis of industrial positioning systems is also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sushant Kumar Pattnaik
- School of Electronics Engineering, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar 751024, India; (S.K.P.); (J.K.D.)
| | - Soumya Ranjan Samal
- Faculty of Telecommunications, Technical University of Sofia, 1756 Sofia, Bulgaria;
- Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Silicon Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar 751024, India
| | | | - Kaliprasanna Swain
- Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Gandhi Institute for Technological Advancements, Bhubaneswar 752054, India;
| | - Subhashree Choudhury
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan, Bhubaneswar 751030, India;
| | - Jitendra Kumar Das
- School of Electronics Engineering, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar 751024, India; (S.K.P.); (J.K.D.)
| | - Albena Mihovska
- Department of Business Development & Technologies, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark;
| | - Vladimir Poulkov
- Faculty of Telecommunications, Technical University of Sofia, 1756 Sofia, Bulgaria;
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23
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Casals L, Gomez C, Vidal R. The SF12 Well in LoRaWAN: Problem and End-Device-Based Solutions. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21196478. [PMID: 34640804 PMCID: PMC8512894 DOI: 10.3390/s21196478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 09/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
LoRaWAN has become a popular technology for the Internet of Things (IoT) device connectivity. One of the expected properties of LoRaWAN is high network scalability. However, LoRaWAN network performance may be compromised when even a relatively small number of devices use link-layer reliability. After failed frame delivery, such devices typically tend to reduce their physical layer bit rate by increasing their spreading factor (SF). This reaction increases channel utilization, which may further degrade network performance, even into congestion collapse. When this problem arises, all the devices performing reliable frame transmission end up using SF12 (i.e., the highest SF in LoRaWAN). In this paper, we identify and characterize the described network condition, which we call the SF12 Well, in a range of scenarios and by means of extensive simulations. The results show that by using alternative SF-management techniques it is possible to avoid the problem, while achieving a packet delivery ratio increase of up to a factor of 4.7.
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24
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A Key Management Protocol Based on the Hash Chain Key Generation for Securing LoRaWAN Networks. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21175838. [PMID: 34502729 PMCID: PMC8433778 DOI: 10.3390/s21175838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Recently, many Low Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) protocols have been proposed for securing resource-constrained Internet of Things (IoT) devices with negligible power consumption. The Long Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN) is a low power communication protocol that supports message authentication, integrity, and encryption using two-session preshared secret keys. However, although the LoRaWAN supports some security functions, it suffers from session key generation and key update problems. This motivates us to introduce a new key management protocol that resolves the LoRaWAN problems and supports key updates. The proposed protocol is based on hash chain generation using a one-way hash function. Network entities share a common hash chain of n key elements to allow using a unique signing key per message. We also propose a salt hashing algorithm that encrypts the original keys into a different form to avoid the physical attacks at the end device side. We analyzed the proposed key generation performance in terms of the computation time, the required storage, and the communication overhead. We implemented and tested the proposed key generation protocol using the NS-3 network simulator. The proposed lightweight key generation protocol significantly enhances the security of the original LoRaWAN at a negligible overhead. The proposed protocol reduces the power consumption and transmission time by two times compared with some previous protocols. In addition, the proposed key generation protocol can resist attacks, such as key compromising attacks and replay attacks, and it supports the Perfect Forward Secrecy, which was not supported by LoRaWAN.
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25
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Haenel A, Haddad Y, Laurent M, Zhang Z. Practical Cross-Layer Radio Frequency-Based Authentication Scheme for Internet of Things. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21124034. [PMID: 34208142 PMCID: PMC8230913 DOI: 10.3390/s21124034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2021] [Revised: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The Internet of Things world is in need of practical solutions for its security. Existing security mechanisms for IoT are mostly not implemented due to complexity, budget, and energy-saving issues. This is especially true for IoT devices that are battery powered, and they should be cost effective to be deployed extensively in the field. In this work, we propose a new cross-layer approach combining existing authentication protocols and existing Physical Layer Radio Frequency Fingerprinting technologies to provide hybrid authentication mechanisms that are practically proved efficient in the field. Even though several Radio Frequency Fingerprinting methods have been proposed so far, as a support for multi-factor authentication or even on their own, practical solutions are still a challenge. The accuracy results achieved with even the best systems using expensive equipment are still not sufficient on real-life systems. Our approach proposes a hybrid protocol that can save energy and computation time on the IoT devices side, proportionally to the accuracy of the Radio Frequency Fingerprinting used, which has a measurable benefit while keeping an acceptable security level. We implemented a full system operating in real time and achieved an accuracy of 99.8% for the additional cost of energy, leading to a decrease of only ~20% in battery life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arie Haenel
- Samovar, Telecom SudParis, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91120 Palaiseau, France;
- Department of Computer Science, Jerusalem College of Technology, Jerusalem 91160, Israel;
- Correspondence:
| | - Yoram Haddad
- Department of Computer Science, Jerusalem College of Technology, Jerusalem 91160, Israel;
| | - Maryline Laurent
- Samovar, Telecom SudParis, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, 91120 Palaiseau, France;
| | - Zonghua Zhang
- Institut Mines-Telecom Lille Douai, 59500 Douai, France;
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26
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Pointl M, Fuchs-Hanusch D. Assessing the Potential of LPWAN Communication Technologies for Near Real-Time Leak Detection in Water Distribution Systems. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:E293. [PMID: 33406751 PMCID: PMC7795417 DOI: 10.3390/s21010293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 12/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
While low-power wide-area network (LPWAN) technologies have been studied extensively for a broad spectrum of smart city applications, their potential for water distribution system monitoring in high temporal resolution has not been studied in detail. However, due to their low power demand, these technologies offer new possibilities for operating pressure-monitoring devices for near real-time leak detection in water distribution systems (WDS). By combining long-distance wireless communication with low power consumption, LPWAN technologies promise long periods of maintenance-free device operation without having to rely on an external power source. This is of particular importance for pressure-based leak detection where optimal sensor positions are often located in the periphery of WDS without a suitable power source. To assess the potential of these technologies for replacing widely-used wireless communication technologies for leak detection, GPRS is compared with the LPWAN standards Narrowband IoT, long-range wide area network (LoRaWAN) and Sigfox. Based on sampling and transmission rates commonly applied in leak detection, the ability of these three technologies to replace GPRS is analyzed based on a self-developed low-power pressure-monitoring device and a simplified, linear energy-consumption model. The results indicate that even though some of the analyzed LPWAN technologies may suffer from contractual and technical limitations, all of them offer viable alternatives, meeting the requirements of leak detection in WDS. In accordance with existing research on data transmission with these technologies, the findings of this work show that even while retaining a compact design, which entails a limited battery capacity, pressure-monitoring devices can exceed runtimes of 5 years, as required for installation at water meters in Austria. Thus, LPWAN technologies have the potential to advance the wide application of near real-time, pressure-based leak detection in WDS, while simultaneously reducing the cost of device operation significantly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Pointl
- Institute of Urban Water Management and Landscape Water Engineering, Graz University of Technology, Stremayrgasse 10/I, 8010 Graz, Austria;
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A Systematic Review on Cognitive Radio in Low Power Wide Area Network for Industrial IoT Applications. SUSTAINABILITY 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/su13010338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The Industrial Internet of things (IIoT) helps several applications that require power control and low cost to achieve long life. The progress of IIoT communications, mainly based on cognitive radio (CR), has been guided to the robust network connectivity. The low power communication is achieved for IIoT sensors applying the Low Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) with the Sigfox, NBIoT, and LoRaWAN technologies. This paper aims to review the various technologies and protocols for industrial IoT applications. A depth of assessment has been achieved by comparing various technologies considering the key terms such as frequency, data rate, power, coverage, mobility, costing, and QoS. This paper provides an assessment of 64 articles published on electricity control problems of IIoT between 2007 and 2020. That prepares a qualitative technique of answering the research questions (RQ): RQ1: “How cognitive radio engage with the industrial IoT?”, RQ2: “What are the Proposed architectures that Support Cognitive Radio LPWAN based IIOT?”, and RQ3: What key success factors need to comply for reliable CIIoT support in the industry?”. With the systematic literature assessment approach, the effects displayed on the cognitive radio in LPWAN can significantly revolute the commercial IIoT. Thus, researchers are more focused in this regard. The study suggests that the essential factors of design need to be considered to conquer the critical research gaps of the existing LPWAN cognitive-enabled IIoT. A cognitive low energy architecture is brought to ensure efficient and stable communications in a heterogeneous IIoT. It will protect the network layer from offering the customers an efficient platform to rent AI, and various LPWAN technology were explored and investigated.
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Badawy W, Ahmed A, Sharf S, Elhamied RA, Mekky M, Elhamied MA. On Flashing Over The Air “FOTA” for IoT Appliances – An ATMEL Prototype. 2020 IEEE 10TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON CONSUMER ELECTRONICS (ICCE-BERLIN) 2020. [DOI: 10.1109/icce-berlin50680.2020.9352203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Wael Badawy
- Badr University in Cairo,Department of Electrical and Communication,Cairo,Egypt
| | - Ahmed Ahmed
- Nile University,School of Information Technology and Computer Science,Giza,Egypt
| | - Samy Sharf
- Nile University,School of Information Technology and Computer Science,Giza,Egypt
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González E, Casanova-Chafer J, Romero A, Vilanova X, Mitrovics J, Llobet E. LoRa Sensor Network Development for Air Quality Monitoring or Detecting Gas Leakage Events. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20216225. [PMID: 33142820 PMCID: PMC7672618 DOI: 10.3390/s20216225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
During the few last years, indoor and outdoor Air Quality Monitoring (AQM) has gained a lot of interest among the scientific community due to its direct relation with human health. The Internet of Things (IoT) and, especially, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) have given rise to the development of wireless AQM portable systems. This paper presents the development of a LoRa (short for long-range) based sensor network for AQM and gas leakage events detection. The combination of both a commercial gas sensor and a resistance measurement channel for graphene chemoresistive sensors allows both the calculation of an Air Quality Index based on the concentration of reducing species such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and CO, and it also makes possible the detection of NO2, which is an important air pollutant. The graphene sensor tested with the LoRa nodes developed allows the detection of NO2 pollution in just 5 min as well as enables monitoring sudden changes in the background level of this pollutant in the atmosphere. The capability of the system of detecting both reducing and oxidizing pollutant agents, alongside its low-cost, low-power, and real-time monitoring features, makes this a solution suitable to be used in wireless AQM and early warning systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernesto González
- Electronic Engineering, Uiversitat Rovira i Virgili, MINOS, 43007 Tarragona, Spain; (E.G.); (J.C.-C.); (A.R.); (E.L.)
| | - Juan Casanova-Chafer
- Electronic Engineering, Uiversitat Rovira i Virgili, MINOS, 43007 Tarragona, Spain; (E.G.); (J.C.-C.); (A.R.); (E.L.)
| | - Alfonso Romero
- Electronic Engineering, Uiversitat Rovira i Virgili, MINOS, 43007 Tarragona, Spain; (E.G.); (J.C.-C.); (A.R.); (E.L.)
| | - Xavier Vilanova
- Electronic Engineering, Uiversitat Rovira i Virgili, MINOS, 43007 Tarragona, Spain; (E.G.); (J.C.-C.); (A.R.); (E.L.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-977-558-502
| | | | - Eduard Llobet
- Electronic Engineering, Uiversitat Rovira i Virgili, MINOS, 43007 Tarragona, Spain; (E.G.); (J.C.-C.); (A.R.); (E.L.)
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Vavrinsky E, Subjak J, Donoval M, Wagner A, Zavodnik T, Svobodova H. Application of Modern Multi-Sensor Holter in Diagnosis and Treatment. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 20:E2663. [PMID: 32392697 PMCID: PMC7273207 DOI: 10.3390/s20092663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Revised: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Modern Holter devices are very trendy tools used in medicine, research, or sport. They monitor a variety of human physiological or pathophysiological signals. Nowadays, Holter devices have been developing very fast. New innovative products come to the market every day. They have become smaller, smarter, cheaper, have ultra-low power consumption, do not limit everyday life, and allow comfortable measurements of humans to be accomplished in a familiar and natural environment, without extreme fear from doctors. People can be informed about their health and 24/7 monitoring can sometimes easily detect specific diseases, which are normally passed during routine ambulance operation. However, there is a problem with the reliability, quality, and quantity of the collected data. In normal life, there may be a loss of signal recording, abnormal growth of artifacts, etc. At this point, there is a need for multiple sensors capturing single variables in parallel by different sensing methods to complement these methods and diminish the level of artifacts. We can also sense multiple different signals that are complementary and give us a coherent picture. In this article, we describe actual interesting multi-sensor principles on the grounds of our own long-year experiences and many experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Vavrinsky
- Institute of Electronics and Photonics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Ilkovicova 3, 81219 Bratislava, Slovakia; (J.S.); (M.D.); (T.Z.)
- Institute of Medical Physics, Biophysics, Informatics and Telemedicine, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University, Sasinkova 2, 81272 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Jan Subjak
- Institute of Electronics and Photonics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Ilkovicova 3, 81219 Bratislava, Slovakia; (J.S.); (M.D.); (T.Z.)
| | - Martin Donoval
- Institute of Electronics and Photonics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Ilkovicova 3, 81219 Bratislava, Slovakia; (J.S.); (M.D.); (T.Z.)
| | - Alexandra Wagner
- Department of Simulation and Virtual Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University, Sasinkova 4, 81272 Bratislava, Slovakia; (A.W.); (H.S.)
| | - Tomas Zavodnik
- Institute of Electronics and Photonics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, Slovak University of Technology, Ilkovicova 3, 81219 Bratislava, Slovakia; (J.S.); (M.D.); (T.Z.)
| | - Helena Svobodova
- Department of Simulation and Virtual Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University, Sasinkova 4, 81272 Bratislava, Slovakia; (A.W.); (H.S.)
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