Physicochemical and Functional Properties of Texturized Vegetable Proteins and Cooked Patty Textures: Comprehensive Characterization and Correlation Analysis

Effects of extrusion screw speed, feed moisture content, and barrel temperature on the physical, techno-functional, and microstructural quality of texturized lentil protein

Utilizing lentil protein as a novel ingredient for producing texturized vegetable proteins (TVPs) can provide new opportunities for the production of next-generation hybrid meat products. TVPs from lentil protein isolate were manufactured using low-moisture extrusion cooking at different combinations of screw speed (SS), feed moisture content (MC), and barrel temperature (BT) profile. In total, seven different combinations of processing treatments were tested, and the resulting TVPs were characterized for their physical (rehydration ratio, texture profile analysis, color, and bulk density), techno-functional (oil and water holding capacities), and microstructural properties. The processing conditions of higher SS and lower MC resulted in increased values of several textural profile attributes (springiness, cohesiveness, and resilience), increased water holding capacity (WHC), and decreased bulk density. Compared to raw lentil protein, TVPs showed enhanced oil holding capacity, though WHC either decreased or remained constant. The extrusion response parameters (die pressure, torque, and specific mechanical energy) showed positive correlations with several physical properties (texture, WHC, and total color change), revealing their potential for serving as important TVP quality indicators. TVPs produced at SS, MC, and BT of 450 rpm, 30%, and 140°C, respectively, showed relatively better overall physical and techno-functional quality and can be used as meat extenders in hybrid meat patties. Overall, this research evidenced the viability of lentil protein as a potential ingredient for producing low-moisture TVPs.

Use of hydration properties of proteins to understand their functionality and tailor texture of extruded plant-based meat analogues

Different protein sources create distinct textures in plant-based meat due to differences in their hydration properties when exposed to different time, temperature, and shear regimes, which in turn depend upon their solubility, protein structure, and specific amino acids. This research aimed to identify these differences and manipulate them to reach a desired texture utilizing simple and reproducible analytical methods to characterize protein properties as either cold or heat swelling. Protein functionality was determined through least gelation concentration (LGC), water absorption index (WAI), and rapid visco analysis (RVA). Cold swelling or CS proteins (pea protein isolate, soy protein isolate, Arcon S soy protein concentrate) were characterized by an LGC < 14% and/ or WAI > 4.0 g/g, while LGC > 16% and/ or WAI < 4.0 g/g indicates proteins with heat swelling or HS properties (Arcon F soy protein concentrate, wheat gluten, and fava protein concentrate). An RVA peak time of around or less than 3 min (<75°C peak temperature) indicated CS properties while greater than 3.5 min (>80°C peak temperature) was considered HS. Protein mixes or treatments comprising mainly of different combinations and ratios of CS proteins were hypothesized to create a softer textured vegetable protein product or texturized vegetable protein (TVP) and those based on HS proteins a firmer TVP. Bulk density was higher for HS treatments (274-287 g/L) than for CS treatments (160-223 g/L). CS treatments exhibited a microstructure that was porous, while HS showed a dense, laminar microstructure. Texture profile analysis showed that CS treatments seemed to show a lower hardness (1154-1595 g) than the HS treatments (1893-2231 g). PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Controlling texture can be a valuable tool when producing a plant-based meat product. Different applications have various texture requirements. For example, a plant-based fish stick would require a softer texture than a hamburger or chicken nugget. By increasing the knowledge of how protein functionality affects meat analogue texture, the time needed to produce new products with novel textures can be reduced. Money could also be saved by being able to quickly replace ingredients with a more affordable or accessible protein with similar swelling abilities to preserve product quality.

Effect and mechanism of DC magnetic field combined with calcium chloride on saltiness and flavor enhancement of low salt pork gel

This study intended to investigate the synergistic effect of direct current magnetic field (DC-MF) and calcium chloride (CaCl2) on improving the saltiness and quality of pork gel and to explore the potential adjustment mechanisms involved. Pork mince was subjected to low-salt treatment of DC-MF for 3 h (T1), CaCl2 substitution (T2) or DC-MF combined with CaCl2 (T3) respectively under high and low salt controls (HC and LC). Heat-induced gels of pork mince were prepared and analyzed in terms of gel texture, saltiness perception, moisture status, salt release and protein structure. Results indicated that DC-MF combined with CaCl2 treatment could reduce the addition of sodium chloride by 5% while maintaining the saltiness and overall acceptability of mince as well as improving its texture and yield. Further studies revealed that DC-MF in concert with CaCl2 treatment could not only increase the moisture content of mince gel, but also enhance saltiness perception by causing gel matrix to release salt-bearing juices under external forces. The energy spectrum analysis also illustrated that co-treatment technique could avoid the salt loss of minced meat during cooking process. Finally, a possible potential regulatory mechanism was speculated that the synergistic action of DC-MF and CaCl2 could alter the gel texture and sodium salt availability by modifying protein conformation and inducing a competitive binding reaction site for calcium and sodium ions. In conclusion, synergistic treatment by DC-MF and CaCl2 was a potential strategy in meat salt reduction.

Understanding Protein Functionality and Its Impact on Quality of Plant-Based Meat Analogues

A greater understanding of protein functionality and its impact on processing and end-product quality is critical for the success of the fast-growing market for plant-based meat products. In this research, simple criteria were developed for categorizing plant proteins derived from soy, yellow pea, and wheat as cold swelling (CS) or heat swelling (HS) through various raw-material tests, including the water absorption index (WAI), least gelation concentration (LGC), rapid visco analysis (RVA), and % protein solubility. These proteins were blended together in different cold-swelling: heat-swelling ratios (0:100 to 90:10 or 0-90% CS) and extruded to obtain texturized vegetable proteins (TVPs). In general, the WAI (2.51-5.61 g/g) and protein solubility (20-46%) showed an increasing trend, while the LGC decreased from 17-18% to 14-15% with an increase in the % CS in raw protein blends. Blends with high CS (60-90%) showed a clear RVA cold viscosity peak, while low-CS (0-40%) blends exhibited minimal swelling. The extrusion-specific mechanical energy for low-CS blends (average 930 kJ/kg) and high-CS blends (average 949 kJ/kg) was similar, even though both were processed with similar in-barrel moisture, but the former had substantially lower protein content (69.7 versus 76.6%). Extrusion led to the aggregation of proteins in all treatments, as seen from the SDS-PAGE and SEC-HPLC analyses, but the protein solubility decreased the most for the high-CS (60-90%) blends as compared to the low-CS (0-40%) blends. This indicated a higher degree of crosslinking due to extrusion for high CS, which, in turn, resulted in a lower extruded TVP bulk density and higher water-holding capacity (average 187 g/L and 4.2 g/g, respectively) as compared to the low-CS treatments (average 226 g/L and 2.9 g/g, respectively). These trends matched with the densely layered microstructure of TVP with low CS and an increase in pores and a spongier structure for high CS, as observed using optical microscopy. The microstructure, bulk density, and WHC observations corresponded well with texture-profile-analysis (TPA) hardness of TVP patties, which decreased from 6949 to 3649 g with an increase in CS from 0 to 90%. The consumer test overall-liking scores (9-point hedonic scale) for TVP patties were significantly lower (3.8-5.1) as compared to beef hamburgers (7.6) (p < 0.05). The data indicated that an improvement in both the texture and flavor of the former might result in a better sensory profile and greater acceptance.

Properties of Texturized Vegetable Proteins from Edible Mushrooms by Using Single-Screw Extruder

This research aimed to determine the feasibility of using mushrooms as an alternative ingredient in texturized vegetable protein (TVP) production using a single-screw extruder. TVPs from King Oyster (TVP-KO) and Pheonix mushroom (TVP-PH) were successfully developed and characterized. The visual appearance of TVP was reddish-brown, with a distinct roasted mushroom-soybean aroma. When rehydrated and cooked, both TVPs provided a minced meat-like appearance and chewy meat texture comparable to commercial TVP (TVP-Com); however, they had inferior water and oil holding and rehydration capacities. TVPs contained comparable protein content to TVP-Com (45–47 wt%), slightly lower carbohydrate content (33–36 wt% vs. 39 wt%), and ash (3–4 wt% vs. 8 wt%), but higher lipid content (7–8 wt% vs. 0.84 wt%) than TVP-Com. Sai-aua prepared from TVP-KO gained the highest overall acceptability. Mushrooms proved to be a potential source for TVP production due to their availability, low cost, nutritional value, and health benefits. Moreover, this finding helps add value to traditional meat products, which offer an opportunity for developing non-animal products with satisfactory sensory properties and low cost. In addition, the study would provide scientific resources for developing plant-based meat products that address health awareness and economic and environmental sustainability concerns.

Peptidomics Study of Plant-Based Meat Analogs as a Source of Bioactive Peptides

The demand for plant-based meat analogs (PBMA) is on the rise as a strategy to sustain the food protein supply while mitigating environmental change. In addition to supplying essential amino acids and energy, food proteins are known sources of bioactive peptides. Whether protein in PBMA affords similar peptide profiles and bioactivities as real meat remains largely unknown. The purpose of this study was to investigate the gastrointestinal digestion fate of beef and PBMA proteins with a special focus on their potential as precursors of bioactive peptides. Results showed that PBMA protein showed inferior digestibility than that in beef. However, PBMA hydrolysates possessed a comparable amino acid profile to that of beef. A total of 37, 2420 and 2021 peptides were identified in the gastrointestinal digests of beef, Beyond Meat and Impossible Meat, respectively. The astonishingly fewer peptides identified from beef digest is probably due to the near-full digestion of beef proteins. Almost all peptides in Impossible Meat digest were from soy, whereas 81%, 14% and 5% of peptides in Beyond Meat digest were derived from pea, rice and mung proteins, respectively. Peptides in PBMA digests were predicted to exert a wide range of regulatory roles and were shown to have ACE inhibitory, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, supporting the potential of PBMA as a source of bioactive peptides.

A comprehensive review on pulse protein fractionation and extraction: processes, functionality, and food applications

The increasing world population requires the production of nutrient-rich foods. Protein is an essential macronutrient for healthy individuals. Interest in using plant proteins in foods has increased in recent years due to their sustainability and nutritional benefits. Dry and wet protein fractionation methods have been developed to increase protein yield, purity, and functional and nutritional qualities. This review explores the recent developments in pretreatments and fractionation processes used for producing pulse protein concentrates and isolates. Functionality differences between pulse proteins obtained from different fractionation methods and the use of fractionated pulse proteins in different food applications are also critically reviewed. Pretreatment methods improve the de-hulling efficiency of seeds prior to fractionation. Research on wet fractionation methods focuses on improving sustainability and functionality of proteins while studies on dry methods focus on increasing protein yield and purity. Hybrid methods produced fractionated proteins with higher yield and purity while also improving protein functionality and process sustainability. Dry and hybrid fractionated proteins have comparable or superior functionalities relative to wet fractionated proteins. Pulse protein ingredients are successfully incorporated into various food formulations with notable changes in their sensory properties. Future studies could focus on optimizing the fractionation process, improving protein concentrate palatability, and optimizing formulations using pulse proteins.