Characterization of the MADS-Box Gene Family in Akebia trifoliata and Their Evolutionary Events in Angiosperms

Genome-Wide Analysis of the Polygalacturonase Gene Family Sheds Light on the Characteristics, Evolutionary History, and Putative Function of Akebia trifoliata

Polygalacturonase (PG) is one of the largest families of hydrolytic enzymes in plants. It is involved in the breakdown of pectin in the plant cell wall and even contributes to peel cracks. Here, we characterize PGs and outline their expression profiles using the available reference genome and transcriptome of Akebia trifoliata. The average length and exon number of the 47 identified AktPGs, unevenly assigned on 14 chromosomes and two unassembled contigs, were 5399 bp and 7, respectively. The phylogenetic tree of 191 PGs, including 47, 57, 51, and 36 from A. trifoliata, Durio zibethinus, Actinidia chinensis, and Vitis vinifera, respectively, showed that AktPGs were distributed in all groups except group G and that 10 AktPGs in group E were older, while the remaining 37 AktPGs were younger. Evolutionarily, all AktPGs generally experienced whole-genome duplication (WGD)/segmental repeats and purifying selection. Additionally, the origin of conserved domain III was possibly associated with a histidine residue (H) substitute in motif 8. The results of both the phylogenetic tree and expression profiling indicated that five AktPGs, especially AktPG25, could be associated with the cracking process. Detailed information and data on the PG family are beneficial for further study of the postharvest biology of A. trifoliata.

Identification of Photoperiod- and Phytohormone-Responsive DNA-Binding One Zinc Finger (Dof) Transcription Factors in Akebia trifoliata via Genome-Wide Expression Analysis

As a kind of plant-specific transcription factor (TF), DNA-Binding One Zinc Finger (Dof) is widely involved in the response to environmental change, and as an evolutionarily important perennial plant species, Akebia trifoliata is ideal for studying environmental adaptation. In this study, a total of 41 AktDofs were identified in the A. trifoliata genome. First, the characteristics, including the length, exon number, and chromosomal distribution of the AktDofs and the isoelectric point (PI), amino acid number, molecular weight (MW), and conserved motifs of their putative proteins, were reported. Second, we found that all AktDofs evolutionarily underwent strong purifying selection, and many (33, 80.5%) of them were generated by whole-genome duplication (WGD). Third, we outlined their expression profiles by the use of available transcriptomic data and RT-qPCR analysis. Finally, we identified four candidate genes (AktDof21, AktDof20, AktDof36, and AktDof17) and three other candidate genes (AktDof26, AktDof16, and AktDof12) that respond to long day (LD) and darkness, respectively, and that are closely associated with phytohormone-regulating pathways. Overall, this research is the first to identify and characterize the AktDofs family and is very helpful for further research on A. trifoliata adaptation to environmental factors, especially photoperiod changes.

Pectate Lyase Gene VvPL1 Plays a Role in Fruit Cracking of Table Grapes

Fruit cracking seriously affects the commercial value of table grapes. To explore whether cell wall disassembly influences grape berry cracking, first, the differences in the cell wall metabolism were compared between cracking-resistant "Shennongjinhuanghou" (SN) and cracking-susceptible "Xiangfei" (XF) varieties. Our results showed that cell wall disassembly events were extremely different between "SN" and "XF." The cracking-resistant "SN" had a higher pectinmethylesterase activity in the early stage and lower polygalacturonase, β-galactosidase, pectate lyase, and cellulase activities from veraison, cooperatively yielding higher ionically bound pectin, covalently bound pectin, hemicellulose, and lower water-soluble pectin, leading to a stronger skin break force and elasticity and conferring "SN" with higher cracking resistance. Furthermore, the function of the VvPL1 gene in fruit cracking was verified by heterologously transforming tomatoes. The transgenic experiment showed that overexpressed fruits had a higher activity of pectate lyase from the breaking stage and a lower level of covalently bound pectin, ionically bound pectin, cellulose, and hemicellulose and a higher level of water-soluble pectin at the red ripe stage, which resulted in a significantly reduced skin break force and flesh firmness and increased fruit cracking incidences. In conclusion, our results demonstrated that the cracking susceptibility of the grape berry is closely related to cell wall disassembly events and VvPL1 plays an important role in fruit cracking.