Possible Role of Envelope Components in the Extreme Copper Resistance of the Biomining Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans

Cloning, expression, and bioinformatics analysis of heavy metal resistance-related genes fd-I and fd-II from Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans

Five heavy metals were introduced into the bacterial heavy metal resistance tests. The results showed that apparent inhibition effects of Cd2+ and Cu2+ on the growth of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans BYSW1 occurred at high concentrations (>0.04 mol l-1). Significant differences (P < 0.001) were both noticed in the expression of two ferredoxin-encoding genes (fd-I and fd-II) related to heavy metal resistance in the presence of Cd2+ and Cu2+ . When exposed to 0.06 mol l-1 Cd2+, the relative expression levels of fd-I and fd-II were about 11 and 13 times as much as those of the control, respectively. Similarly, exposure to 0.04 mol l-1 Cu2+ caused approximate 8 and 4 times higher than those of the control, respectively. These two genes were cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli, and the structures, functions of two corresponding target proteins, i.e. Ferredoxin-I (Fd-I) and Ferredoxin-II (Fd-II), were predicted. The recombinant cells inserted by fd-I or fd-II were more resistant to Cd2+ and Cu2+ compared with wild-type cells. This study was the first investigation regarding the contribution of fd-I and fd-II to enhancing heavy metal resistance of this bioleaching bacterium, and laid a foundation for further elucidation of heavy metal resistance mechanisms caused by Fd.

Molecular Insights into a Novel Cu(I)-Sensitive ArsR/SmtB Family Repressor in Extremophile Acidithiobacillus caldus

Acidithiobacillus caldus is a common bioleaching bacterium that is inevitably exposed to extreme copper stress in leachates. The ArsR/SmtB family of metalloregulatory repressors regulates homeostasis and resistance in bacteria by specifically responding to metals. Here, we characterized A. caldus Cu(I)-sensitive repressor (AcsR) and gained molecular insights into this new member of the ArsR/SmtB family. Transcriptional analysis indicated that the promoter (PIII) of acsR was highly active in Escherichia coli but inhibited upon AcsR binding to the PIII-acsR region. Size exclusion chromatography and circular dichroism spectra revealed that Cu^I-AcsR shared an identical assembly state with apo-AcsR, as a dimer with fewer α helices, more extended strands, and more β turns. Mutation of the cysteine site in AcsR did not affect its assembly state. Copper(I) titrations revealed that apo-AcsR bound two Cu(I) molecules per monomer in vitro with an average dissociation constant (K_D) for bicinchoninic acid competition of 2.55 × 10^-9 M. Site-directed mutation of putative Cu(I)-binding ligands in AcsR showed that replacing Cys64 with Ala reduces copper binding ability from two Cu(I) molecules per monomer to one, with an average K_D of 6.05 × 10^-9 M. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays revealed that apo-AcsR has high affinity for the 12-2-12 imperfect inverted repeats P2245 and P2270 in the acsR gene cluster and that Cu-loaded AcsR had lower affinity for DNA fragments than apo-AcsR. We developed a hypothetical working model of AcsR to better understand Cu resistance mechanisms in A. caldus. IMPORTANCE Copper (Cu) resistance among various microorganisms is attracting interest. The chemolithoautotrophic bacterium A. caldus, which can tolerate extreme copper stress (≥10 g/L Cu ions), is typically used to bioleach chalcopyrite (CuFeS₂). Understanding of Cu resistance in A. caldus is limited due to scant investigation and the absence of efficient gene manipulation tools. Here, we characterized a new member of the ArsR/SmtB family of prokaryotic metalloregulatory transcriptional proteins that repress operons linked to stress-inducing concentrations of heavy metal ions. This protein can bind two Cu(I) molecules per monomer and negatively regulate its gene cluster. Members of the ArsR/SmtB family have not been investigated in A. caldus until now. The discovery of this novel protein enriches understanding of Cu homeostasis in A. caldus.

Antibacterial Effects of ZnO Nanodisks: Shape Effect of the Nanostructure on the Lethality in Escherichia coli

The role of the shape of the nanostructure on the antibacterial effects of ZnO nanodisks has been investigated by detailed mass spectrometry-based proteomics along with other spectroscopic and microscopic studies on E. coli. The primary interaction study of the E. coli cells in the presence of ZnO nanodisks showed rigorous cell surface damage disrupting the cell wall/membrane components detected by microscopic and ATR-FTIR studies. Protein profiling of whole-cell extracts in the presence and absence of ZnO nanodisks identified several proteins that are upregulated and downregulated under the stress of the nanodisks. This suggests that the bacterial response to the primary stress leads to a secondary impact of ZnO nanodisk toxicity via regulation of the expression of specific proteins. Results showed that the ZnO nanodisks lead to the over-expression of peptidyl-dipeptidase Dcp, Transketolase-1, etc., which are important to maintaining the osmotic balance in the cell. The abrupt change in osmotic pressure leads to mechanical injury to the membrane, and nutritional starvation conditions, which is revealed from the expression of the key proteins involved in membrane-protein assembly, maintaining membrane integrity, cell division processes, etc. Thus, indicating a deleterious effect of ZnO nanodisk on the protective layer of E. coli. ZnO nanodisks seem to primarily affect the protective membrane layer, inducing cell death via the development of osmotic shock conditions, as one of the possible reasons for cell death. These results unravel a unique behavior of the disk-shaped ZnO nanostructure in executing lethality in E. coli, which has not been reported for other known shapes or morphologies of ZnO nanoforms.

Integrative Genomics Sheds Light on Evolutionary Forces Shaping the Acidithiobacillia Class Acidophilic Lifestyle

Extreme acidophiles thrive in environments rich in protons (pH values <3) and often high levels of dissolved heavy metals. They are distributed across the three domains of the Tree of Life including members of the Proteobacteria. The Acidithiobacillia class is formed by the neutrophilic genus Thermithiobacillus along with the extremely acidophilic genera Fervidacidithiobacillus, Igneacidithiobacillus, Ambacidithiobacillus, and Acidithiobacillus. Phylogenomic reconstruction revealed a division in the Acidithiobacillia class correlating with the different pH optima that suggested that the acidophilic genera evolved from an ancestral neutrophile within the Acidithiobacillia. Genes and mechanisms denominated as "first line of defense" were key to explaining the Acidithiobacillia acidophilic lifestyle including preventing proton influx that allows the cell to maintain a near-neutral cytoplasmic pH and differ from the neutrophilic Acidithiobacillia ancestors that lacked these systems. Additional differences between the neutrophilic and acidophilic Acidithiobacillia included the higher number of gene copies in the acidophilic genera coding for "second line of defense" systems that neutralize and/or expel protons from cell. Gain of genes such as hopanoid biosynthesis involved in membrane stabilization at low pH and the functional redundancy for generating an internal positive membrane potential revealed the transition from neutrophilic properties to a new acidophilic lifestyle by shaping the Acidithiobacillaceae genomic structure. The presence of a pool of accessory genes with functional redundancy provides the opportunity to "hedge bet" in rapidly changing acidic environments. Although a core of mechanisms for acid resistance was inherited vertically from an inferred neutrophilic ancestor, the majority of mechanisms, especially those potentially involved in resistance to extremely low pH, were obtained from other extreme acidophiles by horizontal gene transfer (HGT) events.

Recent progress in the application of omics technologies in the study of bio-mining microorganisms from extreme environments

Bio-mining microorganisms are a key factor affecting the metal recovery rate of bio-leaching, which inevitably produces an extremely acidic environment. As a powerful tool for exploring the adaptive mechanisms of microorganisms in extreme environments, omics technologies can greatly aid our understanding of bio-mining microorganisms and their communities on the gene, mRNA, and protein levels. These omics technologies have their own advantages in exploring microbial diversity, adaptive evolution, changes in metabolic characteristics, and resistance mechanisms of single strains or their communities to extreme environments. These technologies can also be used to discover potential new genes, enzymes, metabolites, metabolic pathways, and species. In addition, integrated multi-omics analysis can link information at different biomolecular levels, thereby obtaining more accurate and complete global adaptation mechanisms of bio-mining microorganisms. This review introduces the current status and future trends in the application of omics technologies in the study of bio-mining microorganisms and their communities in extreme environments.

Investigating the rus and petI operon expression patterns in exposed Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans sp. FJ2 to different doses of gamma irradiation

The bioleaching process is developing as an economic and successful biotechnology method in the metallurgy industry. Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans is one of the most important bacteria involved in uranium bioleaching which converts insoluble U⁴⁺ to soluble U⁶⁺ by oxidation of Fe²⁺ to Fe³⁺ using several periplasmic proteins encoded by the genes in rus and petI operons in its electron transport pathway. Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to consider the expression of these genes through exposed A. ferrooxidans sp. FJ2 to γ-ray in 17 different doses targeting uranium extraction yield. Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans sp. FJ2 was irradiated by gamma rays at 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, 300, 450, 600, 750 Gy and 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 kGy doses. Moreover, the Eh value of 9k culture media was measured as special screening criteria to select the four treatments. The selected bacteria were cultured in 9k media, containing 50% uranium ore powder in the bioleaching process. Then, the value of pH & Eh of culture media, Fe²⁺ and uranium concentrations in 4, 8 and 13 day's period of incubation were measured. In followings, the expression levels of cyc1, cyc2, rus, coxB, petA, petB, petC and cycA genes at the end of each period were investigated by real-time PCR. Overall, all samples demonstrated a decrease in pH value and Fe²⁺ concentration and an increase in Eh value and U concentration in time intervals. The gamma irradiation in given doses raised the expression levels of all genes encoded in rus and petI operons, except petB gene during the bioleaching process, although, it had no effect either on the pH, Eh values or on Fe²⁺ and uranium concentrations. This result implies that during the oxidation of ferrous iron and formation of Jarosite sediment, the decreasing trend of pH and the increasing trend of Eh occurred in all samples. However, the differences in expression of the genes of rus and petI operons in the samples did not have an effect on uranium extraction.

The adaptation mechanisms of Acidithiobacillus caldus CCTCC M 2018054 to extreme acid stress: Bioleaching performance, physiology, and transcriptomics

To understand the acid-resistant mechanism of bioleaching microorganism Acidithiobacillus caldus CCTCC M 2018054, its physiology and metabolic changes at the transcriptional level under extreme acid stress were systemically studied. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared reflection (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) showed that with an increase in acidity, the absorption peak of sulfur oxidation-related functional groups such as S-O decreased significantly, and a dense sulfur passivation film appeared on the surface of the ore. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) revealed that coverage scale of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) and biofilm fluctuated accordingly along with the increasing acid stress (pH-stat 1.5, 1.2 0.9 and 0.6) during the bioleaching process. In response to acid stress, the increased levels of intracellular glutamic acid, alanine, cysteine, and proline contributed to the maintenance of intracellular pH homeostasis via decarboxylation and alkaline neutralization. Higher unsaturated fatty acid content was closely related to membrane fluidity. Up to 490 and 447 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified at pH 1.5 vs pH 1.2 and pH 1.2 vs pH 0.9, respectively, and 177 common DEGs were associated with two-component system (TCS) regulation, transporter regulation, energy metabolism, and stress response. The upregulation of kdpB helped cells defend against proton invasion, whereas the downregulation of cysB and cbl implied stronger oxidation of sulfur compounds. The transcriptional level of sqr, sor, and soxA was significantly increased and consolidated the energy supply needed for resisting acid stress. Furthermore, eight of the identified DEGs (sor, cbl, ompA, atpF, nuoH, nuoC, sqr, grxB) were verified as being related to the acid stress response process. This study contributes toward expanding the application of these acidophiles in industrial bioleaching.

Metal-Resistance in Bacteria: Why Care?

Heavy metal resistance is more than the tolerance one has towards a particular music genera [...].

High copper concentration reduces biofilm formation in Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans by decreasing production of extracellular polymeric substances and its adherence to elemental sulfur

Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans is an acidophilic bacterium able to grow in environments with high concentrations of metals. It is a chemolithoautotroph able to form biofilms on the surface of solid minerals to obtain its energy. The response of both planktonic and sessile cells of A. ferrooxidans ATCC 23270 grown in elemental sulfur and adapted to high copper concentration was analyzed by quantitative proteomics. It was found that 137 proteins varied their abundance when comparing both lifestyles. Copper effllux proteins, some subunits of the ATP synthase complex, porins, and proteins involved in cell wall modification increased their abundance in copper-adapted sessile lifestyle cells. On the other hand, planktonic copper-adapted cells showed increased levels of proteins such as: cupreredoxins involved in copper cell sequestration, some proteins related to sulfur metabolism, those involved in biosynthesis and transport of lipopolysaccharides, and in assembly of type IV pili. During copper adaptation a decreased formation of biofilms was measured as determined by epifluorescence microscopy. This was apparently due not only to a diminished number of sessile cells but also to their exopolysaccharides production. This is the first study showing that copper, a prevalent metal in biomining environments causes dispersion of A. ferrooxidans biofilms. SIGNIFICANCE: Copper is a metal frequently found in high concentrations at mining environments inhabitated by acidophilic microorganisms. Copper resistance determinants of A. ferrooxidans have been previously studied in planktonic cells. Although biofilms are recurrent in these types of environments, the effect of copper on their formation has not been studied so far. The results obtained indicate that high concentrations of copper reduce the capacity of A. ferrooxidans ATCC 23270 to form biofilms on sulfur. These findings may be relevant to consider for a bacterium widely used in copper bioleaching processes.

Metabolic transcriptional analysis on copper tolerance in moderate thermophilic bioleaching microorganism Acidithiobacillus caldus

Bioleaching, an alternative environmental smelting technology, typically uses high concentrations of heavy metal ions, especially in the subsequent phase, due to metal ion accumulation from the mineral. In this study, we analyzed the overall response of the bioleaching microorganism Acidithiobacillus caldus to copper stress through physiological and transcriptomic analyses. Scanning electron microscopy results showed higher extracellular polymeric substances secretion and cell aggregation under copper stress. Intracellular levels of glutamic acid, glycine and cysteine increased, favoring the synthesis of glutathione for maintenance of the oxidation-reduction state. GSH, during copper stress conditions, the activity of GSH-PX and CAT increased, resulting in reduced oxidative damage while maintaining stable intracellular pH. Higher unsaturated and cyclopropane fatty acid levels resulted in increased membrane fluidity and compactness and decreased ATP levels to support the energy requirements for stress resistance. Initially, H⁺-ATPase activity increased to provide energy for proton output and decreased later at higher copper ion stress. From transcriptome analysis, 140 genes were differentially expressed under low copper stress (1 g/L), while 250 genes exhibited altered transcriptional levels at higher copper stress (3 g/L). These differentially expressed genes were involved primarily in metabolic pathways such as energy metabolism, two-component systems, amino acid metabolism, and signal transduction. The Sox family cluster gene cluster involved in the conversion of thiosulfate to sulfate was upregulated in the sulfur metabolism pathway. In the oxidative phosphorylation pathway, genes participating in the synthesis of NADH oxidoreductase and cytochrome c oxidase, nuoL, cyoABD (cyoA, cyoB and cyoD) and cydAB (cydA and cydB), were downregulated. The TCS element ompR, closely associated with the osmotic pressure, exhibited active response, while Cu²⁺ efflux system gene cusRS was upregulated. In the amino acid metabolism, the glnA involved in nitrogen fixation was upregulated and promoted the synthesis of glutamine synthetase for reducing excessive oxidative stress. This study provides new insights into the mechanism underlying A. caldus response to heavy-metal ion stress under harsh bioleaching conditions.

Iron and sulfur oxidation pathways of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans

Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans is a gram-negative, autotrophic and rod-shaped bacterium. It can gain energy through the oxidation of Fe(II) and reduced inorganic sulfur compounds for bacterial growth when oxygen is sufficient. It can be used for bio-leaching and bio-oxidation and contributes to the geobiochemical circulation of metal elements and nutrients in acid mine drainage environments. The iron and sulfur oxidation pathways of A. ferrooxidans play key roles in bacterial growth and survival under extreme circumstances. Here, the electrons transported through the thermodynamically favourable pathway for the reduction to H₂O (downhill pathway) and against the redox potential gradient reduce to NAD(P)(H) (uphill pathway) during the oxidation of Fe(II) were reviewed, mainly including the electron transport carrier, relevant operon and regulation of its expression. Similar to the electron transfer pathway, the sulfur oxidation pathway of A. ferrooxidans, related genes and operons, sulfur oxidation mechanism and sulfur oxidase system are systematically discussed.