VEGF Expression in Colorectal Cancer Metastatic Lymph Nodes: Clinicopathological Correlation and Prognostic Significance

Identification of Differentially Expressed Genes in Human Colorectal Cancer Using RNASeq Data Validated on the Molecular Level with Real-Time PCR

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a prevalent cancer with high morbidity and mortality rates worldwide. Late diagnosis is a significant contributor to low survival rates in a minority of cases. The study aimed to perform a robust pipeline using integrated bioinformatics tools that will enable us to identify potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for early detection of CRC by exploring differentially expressed genes (DEGs). In addition to, testing the capability of replacing chemotherapy with plant extract in CRC treatment by validating it using real-time PCR. RNA-seq data from cancerous and adjacent normal tissues were pre-processed and analyzed using various tools such as FastQC, Kallisto, DESeq@ R package, g:Profiler, GNEMANIA-CytoScape and CytoHubba, resulting in the identification of 1641 DEGs enriched in various signaling routes. MMP7, TCF21, and VEGFD were found to be promising diagnostic biomarkers for CRC. An in vitro experiment was conducted to examine the potential anticancer properties of 5-fluorouracile, Withania somnifera extract, and their combination. The extract was found to exhibit a positive trend in gene expression and potential therapeutic value by targeting the three genes; however, further trials are required to regulate the methylation promoter. Molecular docking tests supported the findings by revealing a stable ligand-receptor complex. In conclusion, the study's analysis workflow is precise and robust in identifying DEGs in CRC that may serve as biomarkers for diagnosis and treatment. Additionally, the identified DEGs can be used in future research with larger sample sizes to analyze CRC survival.

Integrated bioinformatics approach to unwind key genes and pathways involved in colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the fifth leading cause of death in India. Until now, the exact pathogenesis concerning CRC signaling pathways is largely unknown; however, the diseased condition is believed to deteriorate with lifestyle, aging, and inherited genetic disorders. Hence, the identification of hub genes and therapeutic targets is of great importance for disease monitoring.

OBJECTIVE

Identification of hub genes and targets for identification of candidate hub genes for CRC diagnosis and monitoring.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present study applied gene expression analysis by integrating two profile datasets (GSE20916 and GSE33113) from NCBI-GEO database to elucidate the potential key candidate genes and pathways in CRC. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between CRC (195 CRC tissues) and healthy control (46 normal mucosal tissue) were sorted using GEO2R tool. Further, Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis were performed using Cluster Profiler in Rv. 3.6.1. Moreover, protein-protein interactions (PPI), module detection, and hub gene identification were accomplished and visualized through the Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes, Molecular Complex Detection (MCODE) plug-in of Cytoscape v3.8.0. Further hub genes were imported into ToppGene webserver for pathway analysis and prognostic expression analysis was conducted using Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis webserver.

RESULTS

A total of 2221 DEGs, including 1286 up-regulated and 935down-regulated genes mainly enriched in signaling pathways of NOD-like receptor, FoxO, AMPK signalling and leishmaniasis. Three key modules were detected from PPI network using MCODE. Besides, top 20 high prioritized hub genes were selected. Further, prognostic expression analysis revealed ten of the hub genes, namely IL1B, CD44, Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH, MMP9, CREB1, STAT1, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGFA), CDC5 L, Ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM + and CDH1 to be differently expressed in normal and cancer patients.

CONCLUSION

The present study proposed five novel therapeutic targets, i.e., ATM, GAPDH, CREB1, VEGFA, and CDH1 genes that might provide new insights into molecular oncogenesis of CRC.

Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor-D (VEGF-D): An Angiogenesis Bypass in Malignant Tumors

Vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs) are the key regulators of vasculogenesis in normal and oncological development. VEGF-A is the most studied angiogenic factor secreted by malignant tumor cells under hypoxic and inflammatory stress, which made VEGF-A a rational target for anticancer therapy. However, inhibition of VEGF-A by monoclonal antibody drugs led to the upregulation of VEGF-D. VEGF-D was primarily described as a lymphangiogenic factor; however, VEGF-D's blood angiogenic potential comparable to VEGF-A has already been demonstrated in glioblastoma and colorectal carcinoma. These findings suggested a role for VEGF-D in facilitating malignant tumor growth by bypassing the anti-VEGF-A antiangiogenic therapy. Owing to its high mitogenic ability, higher affinity for VEGFR-2, and higher expression in cancer, VEGF-D might even be a stronger angiogenic driver and, hence, a better therapeutic target than VEGF-A. In this review, we summarized the angiogenic role of VEGF-D in blood vasculogenesis and its targetability as an antiangiogenic therapy in cancer.

SAR131675, a VEGRF3 Inhibitor, Modulates the Immune Response and Reduces the Growth of Colorectal Cancer Liver Metastasis

Simple Summary

Colorectal cancer most often metastasizes to the liver, and in most cases, it is unresectable at diagnosis. New treatment options targeting specific cancer characteristics are needed and are currently being explored. Herein we looked at the use of a selective VEGFR-3 tyrosine kinase inhibitor, SAR131675, as an anti-tumor agent in a mouse model of colorectal liver metastasis. We found that SAR131675 dramatically reduced tumor growth and changed the immune response within the tumor and the surrounding liver, suggesting the use of SAR131675 as an adjuvant therapy for colorectal liver metastasis.

Abstract

Most patients with colorectal cancer (CRC) develop metastases, predominantly in the liver (CLM). Targeted therapies are being investigated to improve current CLM treatments. This study tested the effectiveness of SAR131675, a selective VEGFR-3 tyrosine kinase inhibitor, to inhibit CLM in a murine model. Following intrasplenic induction of CLM, mice were treated daily with SAR131675. Tumor growth and immune infiltrates into tumor and liver tissues were assessed at 10-, 16- and 22-days post tumor induction by stereology, IHC and flow cytometry. SAR151675 treatment significantly reduced tumor burden and F4/80⁺ macrophages in the liver tissues. Analysis of immune cell infiltrates in liver showed tissue that at day 22, had the proportion of CD45⁺ leukocytes significantly reduced, particularly myeloid cells. Analysis of myeloid cells (CD11b⁺ CD45⁺) indicated that the proportion of F4/80⁻ Ly6C^low was significantly reduced, including a predominate PD-L1⁺ subset, while CD3⁺ T cells increased, particularly CD8⁺ PD1⁺, reflected by an increase in the CD8⁺:CD4⁺ T cell ratio. In the tumor tissue SAR11675 treatment reduced the predominant population of F4/80⁺ Ly6C^lo and increased CD4⁺ T cells. These results suggest that SAR131675 alters the immune composition within tumor and the surrounding liver in the later stages of development, resulting in a less immunosuppressive environment. This immunomodulation effect may contribute to the suppression of tumor growth.

Venom of the desert black snake Walterinnesia aegyptia enhances anti-tumor immunity via its beneficial modulatory effects on pro- and anti-tumorigenic inflammatory mediators in cultured colon cancer cells

The role of inflammation in colon cancer is understood as a well-accepted factor that has the tendency to release multiple pro- and anti-tumorigenic inflammatory mediators. Inflammation-induced increased expression of anti-tumorigenic inflammatory mediators and decreased expression of pro-tumorigenic inflammatory mediators encourage beneficial inflammatory effects in terms of powerful anti-tumor immunity. The present study aims to screen the beneficial inflammatory effects of Walterinnesia aegyptia venom via determining its modulatory tendency on the expression of 40 pro- and anti-tumorigenic inflammatory mediators (cytokines/growth factors/chemokines) in LoVo human colon cancer cell line. LoVo-cells were treated with varying doses of crude venom of W. aegyptia. Cell viability was checked utilizing flow cytometry, and IC50 of venom was determined. Venom-induced inflammatory effects were evaluated on the expression of 40 different inflammatory mediators (12 anti-tumorigenic cytokines, 11 pro-tumorigenic cytokines, 7 pro-tumorigenic growth factors, 9 pro-tumorigenic chemokines and 1 anti-tumorigenic chemokine) in treated LoVo-cells [utilizing enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)] and compared with controls. Treatment of venom induced significant cytotoxic effects on inflamed LoVo-cells. IC50 treatment of venom caused significant modulations on the expression of 22 inflammatory mediators in treated LoVo-cells. The beneficial modulatory effects of venom were screened via its capability to significantly increase the expression of five powerful anti-tumorigenic mediators (IL-9, IL-12p40, IL-15, IL-1RA and Fractalkine) and decrease the expression of four major pro-tumorigenic mediators (IL-1β, VEGF, MCP-1 and MCP-3). Walterinnesia aegyptia venom-induced beneficial modulations on the expression of nine crucial pro/anti-tumorigenic inflammatory mediators can be effectively used to enhance powerful anti-tumor immunity against colon cancer.

Clinically Relevant Genes and Proteins Modulated by Tocotrienols in Human Colon Cancer Cell Lines: Systematic Scoping Review

The last decade has witnessed tremendous growth in tocotrienols (T3s) research, especially in the field of oncology, owing to potent anticancer property. Among the many types of cancers, colorectal cancer (CRC) is growing to become a serious global health threat to humans. Chemoprevention strategies in recent days are open to exploring alternative interventions to inhibit or delay carcinogenesis, especially with the use of bioactive natural compounds, such as tocotrienols. This scoping review aims to distil the large bodies of literature from various databases to identify the genes and their encoded modulations by tocotrienols and to explicate important mechanisms via which T3s combat CRC. For this scoping review, research papers published from 2010 to early 2021 related to T3s and human CRC cells were reviewed in compliance with the PRISMA guidelines. The study included research articles published in English, searchable on four literature databases (Ovid MEDLINE, PubMed, Scopus, and Embase) that reported differential expression of genes and proteins in human CRC cell lines following exposure to T3s. A total of 12 articles that fulfilled the inclusion and exclusion criteria of the study were short-listed for data extraction and analysis. The results from the analysis of these 12 articles showed that T3s, especially its γ and δ analogues, modulated the expression of 16 genes and their encoded proteins that are associated with several important CRC pathways (apoptosis, transcriptional dysregulation in cancer, and cancer progression). Further studies and validation work are required to scrutinize the specific role of T3s on these genes and proteins and to propose the use of T3s to develop adjuvant or multi-targeted therapy for CRC.

Apoptosis Inducing 1,3,4-Oxadiazole Conjugates of Capsaicin: Their In Vitro Antiproliferative and In Silico Studies

A series of 1,3,4-oxadiazole tethered capsaicin derivatives was prepared by using one point modification at the vanillyl-hydroxyl group of capsaicin. All the prepared capsaicinoids were evaluated for their antiproliferative activity against NCI-60 human cancer cell lines at 10 μM. Among the compounds tested, compound 20a exhibited good cytotoxic activity against HCT-116, NCI-H460, and SKOV3 cell lines with IC₅₀ 8.55 μΜ, 5.41 μΜ, and 6.4 μΜ, respectively, compared to the parent natural product capsaicin. Further on, it significantly inhibited the colony formation in NCI-H460 in a dose dependent manner and enhanced the ROS effect. It also caused cell arrest at the S phase and induced apoptosis via suppressing the Pro parp marker. Compound 20a exhibited an antimigratory property and suppressed the expression of the VEGF marker in a dose dependent manner. Furthermore, compound 20a also suppressed the effects of the p-Erk, p-p38, and P-CNA makers. In silico studies supported the interaction of this class of compounds with the VEGFR2 protein.

MiR-1539 and Its Potential Role as a Novel Biomarker for Colorectal Cancer

Purpose

We investigated microRNA (miR) 1539 as a potential biomarker for predicting the risk and pathobiological behavior of colorectal cancer (CRC).

Methods

Our strategy consisted of analyzing 100 serum samples from 51 CRC patients, 49 healthy controls (HCs), and another 56 CRC tissue and matched normal adjacent to tumor (NAT) samples. The relative expression levels of miR-1539 in exosomes, serum and tissues were detected and compared in the different groups, using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). The diagnostic value and potential function of miR-1539 were investigated using clinicopathological data combined with bioinformatics analysis.

Results

MiR-1539 expression was significantly up-regulated in exosomes (p = 0.003) and cancer tissue (p < 0.001) from CRC patients. MiR-1539 expression levels in serum varied according to different tumor sites (right-sided vs. left-sided, p = 0.047; left-side CRC vs. HCs, p = 0.031). In terms of diagnostic efficacy, miR-1539 expression in exosomes may help distinguish CRC cases from HCs with a sensitivity of 92.2%, and miR-1539 expression in serum may improve the specificity to 96.6% for left-sided CRC diagnosis. When combined with clinicopathological data, serum miR-1539 levels were positively associated with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression (p = 0.028), whilst levels in CRC tissue were positively associated with increased Ki-67 levels (p = 0.035). Poorer pathologic differentiation was potentially related to an increased tendency of miR-1539 expression in CRC tissue (p = 0.071). Based on our bioinformatics analysis, miR-1539 may have a significant mechanistic influence on CRC genesis and progression.

Conclusions

Circulating or tissue based miR-1539 may be used as a novel potential biomarker for CRC screening, and a predictor of poor clinicopathological behavior in tumors.