An Assessment of the Impact of Urbanization on Soil Erosion in Inner Mongolia

Culturable fungi from urban soils in China II, with the description of 18 novel species in Ascomycota (Dothideomycetes, Eurotiomycetes, Leotiomycetes and Sordariomycetes)

As China's urbanisation continues to advance, more people are choosing to live in cities. However, this trend has a significant impact on the natural ecosystem. For instance, the accumulation of keratin-rich substrates in urban habitats has led to an increase in keratinophilic microbes. Despite this, there is still a limited amount of research on the prevalence of keratinophilic fungi in urban areas. Fortunately, our group has conducted in-depth investigations into this topic since 2015. Through our research, we have discovered a significant amount of keratinophilic fungi in soil samples collected from various urban areas in China. In this study, we have identified and characterised 18 new species through the integration of morphological and phylogenetic analyses. These findings reveal the presence of numerous unexplored fungal taxa in urban habitats, emphasising the need for further taxonomic research in urban China.

The Impact of Residences and Roads on Wind Erosion in a Temperate Grassland Ecosystem: A Spatially Oriented Perspective

The existence of residences and roads is an important way in which human activity affects wind erosion in arid and semiarid environments. Studies assessing the impact of these elements on wind erosion have only focused on limited plots, and their threat of erosion to the surrounding environment has been ignored by many studies. This study was based on spatially overlayed analysis of independent wind erosion distribution simulated by the revised wind erosion equation (RWEQ) and remote-sensing-image-derived residence and road distribution data. Wind erosion at different distances from residences and roads was quantified at the landscape scale of a typical temperate grassland ecosystem, explicitly demonstrating the crucial impacts of both elements on wind erosion. The results showed that wind erosion weakened as the distance from residences and roads increased due to the priority pathways of human activities, and the wind erosion around the residence was more severe than around the road. Human activities in the buffer zones 0-200 m from the residences most frequently caused severe wind erosion, with a wind soil loss of 25 t ha^-1 yr^-1 and a wind soil loss of approximately 5.25 t ha^-1 yr^-1 for 0-60 m from the roads. The characteristics of wind erosion variation in the buffer zones were also affected by residence size and the environments in which the residences were located. The variation in wind erosion was closely related to the road levels. Human activities intensified wind erosion mainly by affecting the soil and vegetation around residences and roads. Ecological management should not be limited to residences and roads but should also protect the surrounding environments. The findings of this study are aimed towards a spatial perspective that can help implement rational and effective environmental management measures for the sustainability of wind-eroded ecosystems.

Study on the Structural Properties of an Ecospatial Network in Inner Mongolia and Its Relationship with NPP

In the context of strengthening the construction of ecological civilization and accelerating the “carbon peak” in China, the regional ecological pattern and its connection with carbon sink capacity have become an urgent topic. Given that Inner Mongolia is a large carbon emission province and the conflict between economic development and ecological protection is particularly prominent, we took Inner Mongolia as an example to extract its ecospatial network, then calculated the integrity index, topological indices, and recovery robustness of the network and evaluated integrity and other properties of the ecospatial network structure by combining them with the ecological background. In addition, we analyzed the relationship between the topological indices and net primary productivity (NPP). The results showed that the network was scale-free and heterogeneous, with low integrity, connectivity and stability, which were the focus of future optimization. The nodes with important functions were mainly distributed in the farm-forest ecotone, grasslands, and the agro-pastoral ecotone; under the simulation attack, the node recovery robustness was stronger than the corridor recovery robustness, and NPP was negatively and significantly correlated with the woodland nodes and grassland nodes. In terms of ecological restoration, the unused land in the west is a key area, and it is necessary to add new ecological nodes and corridors. In terms of enhancing carbon sequestration capacity, under the premise of ensuring network connectivity, the appropriate and rational merging of ecological nodes and corridors within woodlands and grasslands is a particularly effective means. This study provides a reference for evaluating and optimizing the ecological pattern of areas with prominent ecological problems and improving the carbon sink of ecosystems in terms of their ecospatial network structure.

How Socio-Economic Drivers Explain Landscape Soil Erosion Regulation Services in Polish Catchments

Most studies that address the relationship between socio-economic characteristics and soil erosion focus on the effects of soil erosion on socio-economic conditions at different levels, from global to smallholder. Few, if any, efforts are made to address the influence of socio-economic variables on the soil erosion rate as an indicator of landscape degradation. The present study was carried out using spatial data from 402 catchments that cover Poland, to find out how socio-economic variables, which include area-weighted average income per capita (PLN km^-2), area-weighted average gross domestic product (PLN km^-2), population density (person km^-2), and human development index can drive the soil erosion rate (kg ha^-1 yr^-1), along with annual precipitation, soil and geomorphological variables that include soil organic carbon content, soil water content, clay ratio, stream gradient, and terrain slope. The results showed that the soil erosion rate is indirectly driven by the socio-economic variables in the study catchments, as it is alleviated by increasing population density, the area-weighted average gross domestic product, and the human development index. Furthermore, analyzing the incremental relationship between soil erosion rate and the area-weighted average of socio-economic variables revealed that no uniform change can be observed in the relationship between the area-weighted average socio-economic variables and soil erosion in the study catchments.

Historic land use and sedimentation in two urban reservoirs, Occoquan Reservoir and Lake Manassas, Virginia, USA

Human population growth and subsequent land use intensification are closely linked to contemporary increases in sediment and associated contaminants fluxes to fluvial systems, lakes, reservoirs, and coastal zones worldwide. In most urban areas, reservoirs that are the main source of fresh water supply, if not effectively managed, suffer from water quality decline and loss of capacity associated with accelerated siltation. This study analyzes watershed soil losses and sediment accumulation rates in two reservoirs in the Occoquan river basin, a sub-watershed of the Chesapeake Bay in the suburbs of the greater Washington, DC area. Lake Manassas is located in the upper reaches of the basin, characterized by mixed land use and cover of mostly forest, residential areas, and agriculture, whereas Occoquan Reservoir is located in the more urbanized lower reach of the basin in the heavily populated suburban zone south of Washington, DC. Five sediment cores from each lake were used in ²¹⁰Pb-based sediment accumulation rates analysis, and GIS-based Revised Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model and a sediment delivery ratio (SDR) were used to evaluate basin soil losses and sediment fluxes to the fluvial systems. ²¹⁰Pb sediment accumulation rate estimates in Occoquan Reservoir range from 0.26 g cm^-2 year^-1 in the upper reaches to 0.37 g cm^-2 year^-1 in the lower reaches. Lake Manassas also had comparable accumulation values ranging from 0.22 to 0.40 g cm^-2 year^-1. RUSLE/SDR estimated watershed sediment fluxes were 0.26 Mg ha^-1 year^-1 (Mg-mega gram) in the upper watershed, which is significantly higher than 0.07 Mg ha^-1 year^-1 estimates for the lower reaches of the watershed. The variability in the reservoirs' sediment accumulation rates and basin soil losses reflects the variability of land use and cover, basin slopes, and erosion mitigation efforts within the watershed. The lower reaches, though more urbanized, have well-developed storm drain systems limiting run-off related soil losses. The well-managed riparian zones surrounding both reservoirs also limit sediment fluxes, hence the relatively low sediment accumulation rates. Although surficial sediment sources seem to be well managed, some of these efforts might be associated with the uptick in intrinsic sediment sources, leading to localized high sediment accumulation in the mouth of tributaries draining the high-intensity urban areas of the basin.

Socio-demographic digital divide in mHealth app use among clients at outpatient departments in Inner Mongolia, China: a cross-sectional study (Preprint)

Background

Mobile health (mHealth) apps have become part of the infrastructure for access to health care in hospitals, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, little is known about the effects of sociodemographic characteristics on the digital divide regarding the use of hospital-based mHealth apps and their benefits to patients and caregivers.

Objective

The aim of this study was to document the cascade of potential influences from digital access to digital use and then to mHealth use, as well as the potential influence of sociodemographic variables on elements of the cascade.

Methods

A cross-sectional survey was conducted from January to February 2021 among adult clients at outpatient departments in 12 tertiary hospitals of Inner Mongolia, China. Structural equation modeling was conducted after the construct comprising digital access, digital use, and mHealth use was validated.

Results

Of 2115 participants, the β coefficients (95% CI) of potential influence of digital access on digital use, and potential influence of digital use on mHealth use, were 0.28 (95% CI 0.22-0.34) and 0.51 (95% CI 0.38-0.64), respectively. Older adults were disadvantaged with regard to mHealth access and use (β=–0.38 and β=–0.41), as were less educated subgroups (β=–0.24 and β=–0.27), and these two factors had nonsignificant direct effects on mHealth use.

Conclusions

To overcome the mHealth use divide, it is important to improve digital access and digital use among older adults and less educated groups.

Agricultural Eco-Efficiency: Challenges and Progress

The research on agricultural eco-efficiency has become an important point to deeply understand the interaction between ecological and environmental conditions and socio-economic factors as well as realize the coordinated development of agricultural economic development and environmental protection. (1) Background: This paper attempts to provide scientific support for the healthy and stable development of the agricultural economy and the sustainable development of ecological agriculture. (2) Methods: From a comprehensive perspective, this paper systematically analyze the overall situation, development trend, key fields, and hot fields of agricultural eco-efficiency in the past two decades. It consists of two complementary parts, including systematic quantitative literature review (based on CiteSpace) and traditional literature review. (3) Results: Agricultural eco-efficiency has evolved significantly with the popularization of agricultural machinery and the wide application of science and technology in the field of agricultural ecology. Its future development relies on the advances in our knowledge on theories and hypothesis, evaluation methods, impact on “socio-economic ecological” system, and drivers and regulation of agricultural eco-efficiency. For each of these fields, we find that challenges still exist. At present, the quantitative methods and index selection are not unified. We should deeply analyze the internal and external driving force of the development and change of ecological efficiency by constructing a complete theoretical framework for the research of agricultural ecological efficiency. At the same time, new technologies and methods are needed to evaluate agricultural eco-efficiency, and a balanced consensus between the improvement of agricultural eco-efficiency and the improvement of the ecological environment should be formed through empirical research.

Spatio-temporal analysis of the coupling relationship between urbanization and eco-environment in backward regions of China

The strategy of the Silk Road Economic Belt in China has promoted the urban development of the backward regions in the west, but it might also cause serious eco-environmental concerns. Studying the coupling relationship between urbanization and the eco-environment (UEE) is essential to promote the sustainable development in backward regions. This study developed a combined method of coupling coordination degree (CCD) model, linear regression, and gray relational analysis (GRA) model to investigate the spatio-temporal coupling relationship and the influencing factors between UEE in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (NHAR), a typical backward region along the Silk Road Economic Belt. Results show that (1) the economic urbanization and eco-environmental pressure made the largest contribution to the system of urbanization and eco-environment, respectively. (2) The overall CCD in NHAR showed a linear upward trend from 2001 to 2018, while the CCD of each district presented significant spatial difference. The CCDs in the more developed northern regions were generally higher than those in southern mountainous regions. (3) Furthermore, population factors were the main mechanism imposing stress on the eco-environment, and the factors of eco-environmental status had higher restrictive effect on urban development in NHAR. This study could provide theoretical basis for investigating the interaction between UEE in backward regions, which might enable policymakers to formulate targeted sustainable development plans.

Monitoring Vegetation Change and Its Potential Drivers in Inner Mongolia from 2000 to 2019

Inner Mongolia in China is a typically arid and semi-arid region with vegetation prominently affected by global warming and human activities. Therefore, investigating the past and future vegetation change and its impact mechanism is important for assessing the stability of the ecosystem and the ecological policy formulation. Vegetation changes, sustainability characteristics, and the mechanism of natural and anthropogenic effects in Inner Mongolia during 2000–2019 were examined using moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) data. Theil–Sen trend analysis, Mann–Kendall method, and the coefficient of variation method were used to analyze the spatiotemporal variability characteristics and sustained stability of the NDVI. Furthermore, a trend estimation method based on a Seasonal Trend Model (STM), and the Hurst index was used to analyze breakpoints and change trends, and predict the likely future direction of vegetation, respectively. Additionally, the mechanisms of the compound influence of natural and anthropogenic activities on the vegetation dynamics in Inner Mongolia were explored using a Geodetector Model. The results show that the NDVI of Inner Mongolia shows an upward trend with a rate of 0.0028/year (p < 0.05) from 2000 to 2019. Spatially, the NDVI values showed a decreasing trend from the northeast to the southwest, and the interannual variation fluctuated widely, with coefficients of variation greater than 0.15, for which the high-value areas were in the territory of the Alxa League. The areas with increased, decreased, and stable vegetation patterns were approximately equal in size, in which the improved areas were mainly distributed in the northeastern part of Inner Mongolia, the stable and unchanged areas were mostly in the desert, and the degraded areas were mainly in the central-eastern part of Inner Mongolia, it shows a trend of progressive degradation from east to west. Breakpoints in the vegetation dynamics occurred mainly in the northwestern part of Inner Mongolia and the northeastern part of Hulunbuir, most of which occurred during 2011–2014. The future NDVI trend in Inner Mongolia shows an increasing trend in most areas, with only approximately 10% of the areas showing a decreasing trend. Considering the drivers of the NDVI, we observed annual precipitation, soil type, mean annual temperature, and land use type to be the main driving factors in Inner Mongolia. Annual precipitation was the first dominant factor, and when these four dominant factors interacted to influence vegetation change, they all showed interactive enhancement relationships. The results of this study will assist in understanding the influence of natural elements and human activities on vegetation changes and their driving mechanisms, while providing a scientific basis for the rational and effective protection of the ecological environment in Inner Mongolia.

Application of a High-Precision Aeolian Sand Collector in Field Wind and Sand Surveys

Sand collectors are important for quantitatively monitoring aeolian sand activities. In this paper, an automatic high-precision sand collector was designed. Based on the measured data of aeolian transport performed with a piezoelectric saltation sensor (H11-Sensit) and a 10 m high meteorological tower, the sampling efficiency of the automatic sand sampler and the horizontal dust flux of the near surface were analyzed based on observed data. The results were as follows: the best-fitting function between the number of impacting sand particles and the amount of collected sand was a linear relationship. The average value of R² was 0.7702, and the average sand collection efficiency of the sand collector at a height of 5 cm was 94.3%, indicating good sand collection performance. From all field tests conducted so far, it appeared that a high-precision sand sampler was a useful device for making field measurements of horizontal dust fluxes and ascertaining the relationship between transition particles and wind speed. In the future, the equipment costs and wind drive will continue to be optimized.

Soil wind erosion evaluation and sustainable management of typical steppe in Inner Mongolia, China

Soil wind erosion is an important ecological environmental problem that is widespread in arid and semi-arid regions. Currently, related studies are mainly focused on spatiotemporal characteristics or analysis of effector mechanisms, and they do not facilitate direct servicing of management decisions. In this paper, we used the Xilingol typical steppe in Inner Mongolia, China, as a study site to develop a decision framework for a comprehensive understanding of soil wind erosion and to promote sustainable management of steppes. In this study, we used the Revised Wind Erosion Equation model to simulate soil wind erosion. We combined this model with linear trend analysis to evaluate the ecological effects of soil wind erosion and wind erosion intensity, and delineated the gravity center migration path. We used the constraint line method to reveal the mechanisms by which climatic factors affected soil wind erosion, achieved the spatial visualization of wind-breaking and sand-fixing service flow, and proposed decision-based regional sustainable development suggestions. The results showed that long-term soil wind erosion will lead to soil coarsening and loss of soil nutrients. Soil wind erosion in the study site showed worsening trends and risks, and as such, ecological environment conservation and management are urgently required. The study framework promotes a clear understanding of the complex relationship of human-earth systems. The study results will aid in the ecological remediation of steppe landscapes and the prevention of desertification and will provide a foundation for win-win management of ecological conservation and economic development in arid and semi-arid regions.

Quantitative Soil Wind Erosion Potential Mapping for Central Asia Using the Google Earth Engine Platform

A lack of long-term soil wind erosion data impedes sustainable land management in developing regions, especially in Central Asia (CA). Compared with large-scale field measurements, wind erosion modeling based on geospatial data is an efficient and effective method for quantitative soil wind erosion mapping. However, conventional local-based wind erosion modeling is time-consuming and labor-intensive, especially when processing large amounts of geospatial data. To address this issue, we developed a Google Earth Engine-based Revised Wind Erosion Equation (RWEQ) model, named GEE-RWEQ, to delineate the Soil Wind Erosion Potential (SWEP). Based on the GEE-RWEQ model, terabytes of Remote Sensing (RS) data, climate assimilation data, and some other geospatial data were applied to produce monthly SWEP with a high spatial resolution (500 m) across CA between 2000 and 2019. The results show that the mean SWEP is in good agreement with the ground observation-based dust storm index (DSI), satellite-based Aerosol Optical Depth (AOD), and Absorbing Aerosol Index (AAI), confirming that GEE-RWEQ is a robust wind erosion prediction model. Wind speed factors primarily determined the wind erosion in CA (r = 0.7, p < 0.001), and the SWEP has significantly increased since 2011 because of the reversal of global terrestrial stilling in recent years. The Aral Sea Dry Lakebed (ASDLB), formed by shrinkage of the Aral Sea, is the most severe wind erosion area in CA (47.29 kg/m2/y). Temporally, the wind erosion dominated by wind speed has the largest spatial extent of wind erosion in Spring (MAM). Meanwhile, affected by the spatial difference of the snowmelt period in CA, the wind erosion hazard center moved from the southwest (Karakum Desert) to the middle of CA (Kyzylkum Desert and Muyunkum Desert) during spring. According to the impacts of land cover change on the spatial dynamic of wind erosion, the SWEP of bareland was the highest, while that of forestland was the lowest.

Quantification of Soil Losses along the Coastal Protected Areas in Kenya

Monitoring of improper soil erosion empowered by water is constantly adding more risk to the natural resource mitigation scenarios, especially in developing countries. The demographical pattern and the rate of growth, in addition to the impairments of the rainfall pattern, are consequently disposed to adverse environmental disturbances. The current research goal is to evaluate soil erosion triggered by water in the coastal area of Kenya on the district level, and also in protected areas. The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) model was exercised to estimate the soil loss in the designated study area. RUSLE input parameters were functionally realized in terms of rainfall and runoff erosivity factor (R), soil erodibility factor (K), slope length and gradient factor (LS), land cover management factor (C) and slope factor (P). The realization of RUSLE input parameters was carried out using different dataset sources, including meteorological data, soil/geology maps, the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and processing of satellite imagery. Out of 26 districts in coastal area, eight districts were projected to have mean annual soil loss rates of >10 t·ha−1·y−1: Kololenli (19.709 t·ha−1·y−1), Kubo (14.36 t·ha−1·y−1), Matuga (19.32 t·ha−1·y−1), Changamwe (26.7 t·ha−1·y−1), Kisauni (16.23 t·ha−1·y−1), Likoni (27.9 t·ha−1·y−1), Mwatate (15.9 t·ha−1·y−1) and Wundanyi (26.51 t·ha−1·y−1). Out of 34 protected areas at the coastal areas, only four were projected to have high soil loss estimation rates >10 t·ha−1·y−1: Taita Hills (11.12 t·ha−1·y−1), Gonja (18.52 t·ha−1·y−1), Mailuganji (13.75.74 t·ha−1·y−1), and Shimba Hills (15.06 t·ha−1·y−1). In order to mitigate soil erosion in Kenya’s coastal areas, it is crucial to regulate the anthropogenic disturbances embedded mainly in deforestation of the timberlands, in addition to the natural deforestation process caused by the wildfires.

The Double-Edged Sword of Urbanization and Its Nexus with Eco-Efficiency in China

Urbanization has made tremendous contributions to China's economic development since its economic reforms and opening up. At the same time, population agglomeration has aggravated environmental pollution and posed serious challenges to China's environment. This article empirically investigates the impacts of China's urbanization on eco-efficiency, comprehensively reflecting economic growth, resource input, and waste discharge. We first measured the provincial eco-efficiency in China from 2005 to 2015 using the Super Slack-Based model (Super-SBM). We then constructed a spatial model to empirically analyze the effects of urbanization on eco-efficiency at the national level, and at four regional levels. The results indicated that the regional eco-efficiency in China has fluctuated, but is generally improving, and that a gap between regions was evident, with a trend toward further gap expansion. We observed an effect of spatial spillover in eco-efficiency, which was significant and positive for the whole country, except for the western region. The influence of urbanization on China's eco-efficiency exhibited a U-curve relationship. The changing trend in the eastern, central, and western regions was the same as that in the whole country; however, the trend exhibited an inverted U-curve relationship in the northeastern region. To the best of our knowledge, covering a time period of 2005-2015, this article is the first of its kind to study the impact of urbanization on eco-efficiency in China at both the national and regional levels. This study may help policy-makers to create sustainable policies that could be helpful in balancing urbanization and the ecological environment.

Impacts of Land-Use Changes on Soil Erosion in Water–Wind Crisscross Erosion Region of China

Soil erosion affects food production, biodiversity, biogeochemical cycles, hydrology, and climate. Land-use changes accelerated by intensive human activities are a dominant anthropogenic factor inducing soil erosion globally. However, the impacts of land-use-type changes on soil erosion dynamics over a continuous period for constructing a sustainable ecological environment has not been systematically quantified. This study investigates the spatial–temporal dynamics of land-use change and soil erosion across a specific area in China with water–wind crisscross erosion during three periods: 1995–1999, 2000–2005, and 2005–2010. We analyzed the impacts of each land-use-type conversion on the intensity changes of soil erosion caused by water and wind, respectively. The major findings include: (1) land-use change in the water–wind crisscross erosion region of China was characterized as cultivated land expansion at the main cost of grassland during 1995–2010; (2) the strongest land-use change moved westward in space from the central Loess Plateau area in 1995–2005 to the western piedmont alluvial area in 2005–2010; (3) soil erosion area is continuously increasing, but the trend is declining from the late 1990s to the late 2000s; (4) the soil conservation capability of land-use types in water–wind crisscross erosion regions could be compiled from high to low as high coverage grasslands, medium coverage grasslands, paddy, drylands, low coverage grasslands, built-up lands, unused land of sandy lands, the Gobi Desert, and bare soil. These findings could provide some insights for executing reasonable land-use approaches to balance human demands and environment sustainability.

Wind Erosion Changes in a Semi-Arid Sandy Area, Inner Mongolia, China

Wind erosion is one of the major environmental problems in drylands. Identifying the dominant natural factors of wind erosion and using targeted treatment measures are the key steps in wind erosion control. Using Horqin Left Back Banner in China as a case study, we applied the revised wind erosion equation to simulate the spatial distribution of wind erosion in the semi-arid sandy area. Contribution assessment and constraint line analysis were used to investigate the contributions of driving forces to wind erosion changes. The results showed that the wind erosion in the whole area was reduced by 0.35 t/hm2·a from 2005 to 2016. The wind factor and vegetation coverage factor had dominant contributions to the wind erosion modulus and accounted for the erosion in 49.87% and 50.13% of the total area, respectively. In addition, the average wind speed exceeding the threshold and the number of occurrences exhibited significant correlations with the wind erosion severity. Meanwhile, the mitigation effects of vegetation coverage on wind erosion decreased with the increase in wind speed. The temporal mismatch between the wind speed and vegetation coverage was the main reason for the frequent severe wind erosion in spring. Reducing the spring wind speed through adding windbreaks would be an effective method for decreasing wind erosion in semi-arid areas.

Determining Soil Nutrients Reference Condition in Alpine Region Grassland, China: A Case Study of Hulun Buir Grassland

Grasslands represent a source of nutrient cycling, ecosystem stabilization, and services for human use. Grassland soil quality is commonly used as an indicator of ecosystem health and sustainability due to its strong correlation with overall grassland quality and ecosystem health. Although direct and indirect effects of human activities or disturbances on soil can be taken into account, a benchmark (i.e., the reference condition (RC)) should be used and is needed to describe the baseline of an area without significant anthropogenic disturbance. Therefore, determination of the soil reference condition and suitable selection methods have become a key focal point in grassland protection and ecological assessments. In this study, several methods were selected to determine soil nutrient concentrations of Hulun Buir Grassland in northern China based on the proposed criteria. The concentrations of total organic matter, N, P, and K; 112 samples were analyzed using the population distribution method, trisection method, and regression model method. The reference concentrations of total organic matter, N, P, and K in soil were recommended to be 52.12 g/kg, 2.94 g/kg, 2.08 mg/kg, and 305.76 mg/kg, respectively. In the alpine region grassland, the major factors that impact nutrient concentration were agricultural activity and vegetation coverage. Sampling methods should be used preferentially in determining grassland soil reference condition and historical data; experts’ judgment could be used in substitution.