WIC Participation and Breastfeeding after the 2009 WIC Revision: A Propensity Score Approach

Examining the Role of Women, Infant, and Children in Black Women Breastfeeding Duration and Exclusivity: A Systematic Review

Background: African American women continue to experience low rates of breastfeeding initiation as well as low rates of exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months. Research has indicated that there are several social determinants that impact breastfeeding rates, but there is a dearth of literature that allows African American women to give voice to their experiences. In addition, research has shown women, infant, and children (WIC) participants to have lower breastfeeding rates than non-WIC eligible women. Research Aim/Question: The aim of this systematic review was to examine the relationship between WIC program participation and breastfeeding initiation and duration among non-Hispanic African American/Black women. Methods: The approach for this review used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). Four online databases, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, and SCOPUS, were used to search for peer-reviewed articles and grey literature. Results: Two hundred eighteen articles were retrieved through the database search and underwent initial screening, yielding 59 potential eligible articles. Full-text articles were further reviewed and 11 met the inclusion criteria and were included in this systematic review. Conclusions: Included studies show mixed results regarding the association between WIC participation and breastfeeding initiation, but there is a general negative association between WIC participation and breastfeeding duration, especially among Black women.

Breastfeeding Outcomes Associated With the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) promotes and supports breastfeeding for low-income women and children. A prior review reported negative associations of WIC with breastfeeding outcomes. WIC food package changes in 2009 increased breastfeeding support.

OBJECTIVE

The objectives of this systematic review were to 1) evaluate evidence on WIC participation and breastfeeding outcomes and 2) evaluate breastfeeding outcomes of WIC participants before versus after the 2009 food package.

DATA SOURCES

PubMed, Embase®, CINAHL, ERIC, SCOPUS, PsycINFO, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials for papers published January 2009 to April 2022.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Included studies compared breastfeeding outcomes (initiation, duration, exclusivity, early introduction of solid foods) of WIC participants with WIC-eligible nonparticipants, or among WIC participants before versus after the 2009 package change.

STUDY APPRAISAL METHODS

Two independent reviewers evaluated each study and assessed risk of bias using EHPHP assessment.

RESULTS

From 13 observational studies we found: 1) moderate strength of evidence (SOE) of no difference in initiation associated with WIC participation; 2) insufficient evidence regarding WIC participation and breastfeeding duration or exclusivity; 3) low SOE that the 2009 food package change is associated with greater breastfeeding exclusivity; 4) low SOE that WIC breastfeeding support services are positively associated with initiation and duration.

LIMITATIONS

Only observational studies, with substantial risk of bias and heterogeneity in outcomes and exposures.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF KEY FINDINGS

WIC participation is not associated with a difference in breastfeeding initiation compared to WIC-eligible nonparticipants, but the 2009 food package change may have improved breastfeeding exclusivity among WIC participants and receipt of breastfeeding support services may have improved breastfeeding initiation and duration.

A Quasi-Experimental Assessment of the Effect of the 2009 WIC Food Package Revisions on Breastfeeding Outcomes

Breastfeeding rates among infants participating in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) are consistently lower than those of WIC nonparticipants. The 2009 WIC food package revisions were intended to incentivize breastfeeding among the WIC population. To examine the effectiveness of this policy change, we estimated an intent-to-treat regression-adjusted difference-in-difference model with propensity score weighting, an approach that allowed us to control for both secular trends in breastfeeding and selection bias. We used novel data from the Feeding Infants and Toddlers Survey from 2008 and 2016. We defined our treatment group as infants eligible for WIC based on household income and our control group as infants in households with incomes just above the WIC eligibility threshold. The breastfeeding outcomes we analyzed were whether the infants were ever breastfed, breastfed through 6 months, and breastfed exclusively through 6 months. We observed significant increases in infants that were ever breastfed in both the treatment group (10 percentage points; p < 0.01) and the control group (15 percentage points; p < 0.05); however, we did not find evidence that the difference between the two groups was statistically significant, suggesting that the 2009 revisions may not have had an effect on any of these breastfeeding outcomes.

Perinatal Hospital Practices Are Associated with Breastfeeding through 5 Months Postpartum among Women and Infants from Low-Income Households

BACKGROUND

Breastfeeding (BF) provides optimal nutrition during the first 6 mo of life and is associated with reduced infant mortality and several health benefits for children and mothers. However, not all infants in the United States are breastfed, and sociodemographic disparities exist in BF rates. Experiencing more BF-friendly maternity care practices at the hospital is associated with better BF outcomes, but limited research has examined this association among mothers enrolled in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), a population at risk of low BF rates.

OBJECTIVES

We assessed the association between BF-related hospital practices (rooming-in, support from hospital staff, and provision of a pro-formula gift pack) and the odds of any or exclusive BF through 5 mo among infants and mothers enrolled in WIC.

METHODS

We analyzed data from the WIC Infant and Toddler Feeding Practices Study II, a nationally representative cohort of children and caregivers enrolled in WIC. Exposures included maternal experience of hospital practices reported at 1 mo postpartum, and BF outcomes were surveyed at 1, 3, and 5 mo. ORs and 95% CIs were obtained using survey-weighted logistic regression, adjusting for covariates.

RESULTS

Rooming-in and strong hospital staff support were associated with higher odds of any BF at 1, 3, and 5 mo postpartum. Provision of a pro-formula gift pack was negatively associated with any BF at all time points and with exclusive BF at 1 mo. Each additional BF-friendly hospital practice experienced was associated with 47% to 85% higher odds of any BF over the first 5 mo and 31% to 36% higher odds of exclusive BF over the first 3 mo.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to BF-friendly hospital practices was associated with BF beyond the hospital stay. Expanding BF-friendly policies at the hospital could increase BF rates in the United States WIC-served population.

Effects of the revised WIC food package on women's and children's health: a quasi-experimental study

BACKGROUND

The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) was revised in 2009 to be more congruent with national dietary guidelines. There is limited research examining effects of the revision on women's and children's health. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether the revised WIC food package was associated with various indicators of physical and mental health for women and children.

METHODS

We used 1998-2017 waves of the National Health Interview Survey (N = 81,771 women and 27,780 children) to estimate effects of the revised WIC food package on indicators of health for both women (self-reported health and body mass index) and children (anemia, mental health, and parent-reported health). We used difference-in-differences analysis, a quasi-experimental technique that assessed pre-post differences in outcomes among WIC-recipients while "differencing out" the secular underlying trends among a control group of non-recipients.

RESULTS

For all outcomes evaluated for women and children, we were unable to rule out the null hypothesis that there was no effect of receiving the revised WIC food package. These findings were confirmed across several secondary analyses conducted to assess heterogeneity of effects and robustness of results.

CONCLUSION

While we did not find effects of the revised WIC food package on downstream health indicators, studies using similarly robust methods in other datasets have found shorter-term effects on more proximal outcomes related to diet and nutrition. Effects of the modest WIC revisions may be less impactful on longer-term indicators of health, and future studies should examine the larger COVID-19-era expansion.

The effect of the 2009 WIC revision on maternal and child health: A quasi-experimental study

BACKGROUND

The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) is the largest U.S. nutrition program for low-income pregnant women. It was revised in 2009, with the goal of improving nutritional content of food packages, enhancing nutrition education, and strengthening breast feeding support. Few studies have assessed the effects of this revision on perinatal health.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the impact of the revised WIC program on maternal and child health in a large, multi-state data set.

METHODS

We conducted a quasi-experimental difference-in-differences analysis, comparing the pre/post changes among WIC recipients to changes among non-recipients. We adjusted for key sociodemographic covariates in multivariable linear models. We used data from the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) for 18 states from 2004 to 2017.

RESULTS

The main analysis included 331,946 mother-infant dyads. WIC recipients were more likely to be younger, Black or Hispanic/Latina, unmarried, and of greater parity. The revised WIC program was associated with reduced likelihood of more-than-recommended GWG (-1.29% points, 95% confidence interval [CI] -2.03, -0.56) and increased likelihood of ever breast fed (1.18% points, 95% CI 0.28, 2.08). We also identified heterogeneous effects on GWG, with more pronounced associations among women 35 and older. There were no associations with foetal growth.

CONCLUSIONS

The revised WIC program was associated with improvements in women's gestational weight gain and infant breast feeding.

Patterns and Predictors of Breast Milk Feeding from Birth to Age 4 Months among Primiparous African American Mother–Infant Dyads

The health benefits of breast milk feeding have been well-established, yet disparities exist, with African American mothers having the lowest breast milk feeding rates in the United States. This prospective, longitudinal study examined infant feeding (breast milk and/or infant formula) from birth to age 16 weeks, predictors of any breast milk feeding by age 1 week, and predictors of cessation of any breast milk feeding by ages 3, 8, and 16 weeks among primiparous African American mothers. This secondary analysis included 185 mother–infant dyads from the Sleep SAAF (Strong African American Families) study, a randomized clinical trial testing a responsive parenting vs. child safety control intervention. Mothers reported sociodemographic and psychosocial characteristics at age 1 week and infant feeding practices at ages 1, 3, 8, and 16 weeks. Rates of any breast milk feeding decreased from 66.5% at 1 week to 23.3% at 16 weeks. Bivariate logistic regression models showed that prepregnancy BMI (OR = 1.09), working prepregnancy (OR = 2.25), and food insecurity (OR = 2.49) significantly increased the odds of mothers feeding any breast milk by 1 week, whereas Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) participation (OR = 0.21) significantly decreased the odds. Bivariate logistic regression models showed that Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) participation (OR = 2.86) and racial discrimination (OR = 2.14) significantly increased the odds of cessation of any breast milk feeding by 3 weeks. SNAP (OR = 2.33) and WIC (OR = 2.38) participation significantly increased the odds of cessation of any breast milk feeding by 8 weeks, whereas higher prepregnancy BMI (OR = 0.95) decreased the odds. Higher mother’s age (OR = 0.92) significantly decreased the odds of cessation of any breast milk feeding by 16 weeks. The findings can be used to inform targeted interventions to promote mothers feeding any breast milk and help reduce breast milk feeding disparities among African American mothers.

A Critical Review on the Complex Interplay between Social Determinants of Health and Maternal and Infant Mortality

Background: U.S. maternal and infant mortality rates constitute an important public health problem, because these rates surpass those in developed countries and are characterized by stark disparities for racial/ethnic minorities, rural residents, and individuals with less privileged socioeconomic status due to social determinants of health (SDoH). Methods: A critical review of the maternal and infant mortality literature was performed to determine multilevel SDoH factors leading to mortality disparities with a life course lens. Results: Black mothers and infants fared the worst in terms of mortality rates, likely due to the accumulation of SDoH experienced as a result of structural racism across the life course. Upstream SDoH are important contributors to disparities in maternal and infant mortality. More research is needed on the effectiveness of continuous quality improvement initiatives for the maternal–infant dyad, and expanding programs such as paid maternity leave, quality, stable and affordable housing, and social safety-nets (Medicaid, CHIP, WIC), in reducing maternal and infant mortality. Finally, it is important to address research gaps in individual, interpersonal, community, and societal factors, because they affect maternal and infant mortality and related disparities. Conclusion: Key SDoH at multiple levels affect maternal and infant health. These SDoH shape and perpetuate disparities across the lifespan and are implicated in maternal and infant mortality disparities.

WIC Participation and Dietary Quality among US Children: Impact of the 2009 Food Package Revision

This study aims to assess the effectiveness of the WIC program at improving children's dietary quality and to evaluate whether the 2009 food benefit revision further improved the WIC program. A sample of 1,753 children aged between 2 to 4 years from the 2005-2008 and 2011-2016 NHANES was analyzed using a propensity score weighted difference-in-difference approach. Results show that WIC-participating children scored 2.98 points higher (SD: 0.89; P<0.01) in HEI-2015 total scores compared with income-eligible non-participants during 2011-2016. No significant change was observed in the differences of HEI-2015 scores between WIC participants and eligible non-participants from 2005-2008 to 2011-2016.

Social Determinants of Breastfeeding in the United States

Despite overall improvement in breastfeeding in the past 3 decades in the United States, significant and alarming social disparities persist. Adverse social determinants of health are increasingly recognized as root causes of social disparities in health outcomes, including breastfeeding initiation and continuation. We provide an overview of the evidence and mechanisms by which social determinants of health, including education, employment, food, neighborhood, and housing contribute to ongoing social disparities in breastfeeding in the United States, including current research gaps. We also review the intersection of social determinants of health with income, racism, and theory of planned behavior, a commonly used decision-making framework for breastfeeding promotion. Future interventions to address social determinants of breastfeeding should occur at the policy, community, organization, and individual levels.

App Usage Associated With Full Redemption of WIC Food Benefits: A Propensity Score Approach

OBJECTIVE

To examine the relationship between WICShopper application (app) usage and full redemption of Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) food benefits.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional study.

SETTING

West Virginia WIC program.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 23,050 West Virginia WIC households in 2019.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Full redemptions were defined as the redemption rate of ≥ 90% for a given food benefit.

ANALYSIS

App/non-app users were defined as households with someone using/not using the WICShopper app. Multivariate logistic regressions were applied. To address the potential self-selection bias in app usage, the propensity score (PS) of app usage was estimated. The regressions were rerun with the balanced sample by matching the PS.

RESULTS

With PS matching, the prevalence of full redemption at the household level was 7.2% for app users vs 4.7% for nonapp users (odds ratio, 1.64; 95% confidence interval, 1.40-1.92; P < 0.001). App users had a higher prevalence of full redemption in most food categories, even with PS matching.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Use of the WICShopper app was associated with a higher prevalence of full redemptions in most food benefits after controlling the self-selection bias.

Revisiting the Relationship between WIC Participation and Breastfeeding among Low-Income Children in the U.S. after the 2009 WIC Food Package Revision

The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) provides breastfeeding support and free formula to low-income participating infants in the U.S. Literature has consistently documented worse breastfeeding outcomes in WIC infants and children than in non-participants, although self-selection bias poses a challenge in examining the relationship between WIC participation and breastfeeding in low-income mother-child dyads. The WIC program adopted a comprehensive food package revision in 2009, the first one in four decades. Since that time, few national studies have examined the relationship between WIC participation and breastfeeding while controlling for the endogeneity of WIC participation with the propensity score method. This paper applied an instrumental variable (IV) approach on a large, nationally representative survey sample of children, the National Immunization Surveys (NIS), to examine the relationship between WIC participation and breastfeeding among children born between 2005 and 2014. We identified state Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) enrollment rates and SNAP Policy Indices as valid IVs to address WIC participation endogeneity. Without the IVs, WIC participation had a significantly negative relationship with breastfeeding. After addressing endogeneity using the IVs, the relationship became insignificant in the whole sample and in the subpopulations across race/ethnicity and child gender. The neutrality of WIC participation on breastfeeding is important for policy makers to understand in seeking to improve breastfeeding among WIC participants.

Impact of breastfeeding interventions among United States minority women on breastfeeding outcomes: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

In the U.S., strong ethnic/racial, socioeconomic, demographic, and geographic breastfeeding (BF) inequities persist, and African American and Hispanic women are less likely to meet their breastfeeding goals compared to White women. This systematic review (SR) was designed to answer the question: What is the impact of breastfeeding interventions targeting ethnic/racial minority women in the U.S. on improving BF initiation, duration and exclusivity rates?

METHODS

The SR was conducted following the Institute of Medicine Guidelines and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses checklist. The study protocol was developed and registered a priori in PROSPERO (ID#CRD42020177764). The electronical databases searched was MEDLINE All (Ovid). Search strategies were led by the team's expert public health librarian using both controlled vocabulary and free text queries and were tested against a validated set of relevant papers included in existing reviews. The GRADE methodology was used to assess the quality of the studies.

RESULTS

We included 60 studies that had randomized (n = 25), observational (n = 24), quasi-experimental (n = 9), or cross-sectional (n = 2) designs. The studies focused on populations that were multi-ethnic/racial (n = 22), only Hispanic (n = 24), only Black (n = 13), and only American Indian (n = 1). The study interventions were classified following the socioecological model: macrosystem/policy level (n = 6); community level (n=51), which included healthcare organizations (n = 34), The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) (n = 9), and community organizations/public health institutions (n = 8); and  interpersonal level (n = 3).

CONCLUSIONS

Policy and community level interventions delivered through WIC, healthcare facilities, and community agencies) are likely to improve BF outcomes among women of color. The combination of interventions at different levels of the socioecological model has not been studied among minority women in the U.S. Implementation science research is needed to learn how best to scale up and sustain effective BF interventions, taking into account the needs and wants of minority women. Thus, it is strongly recommended  to conduct large scale implementation research studies addressesing how to strengthen the different health and social environments surrounding women of color in the U.S. to improving their BF outcomes.

The Revised WIC Food Package and Child Development: A Quasi-Experimental Study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), one of the largest US safety net programs, was revised in 2009 to be more congruent with dietary guidelines. We hypothesize that this revision led to improvements in child development.

METHODS

Data were drawn from a cohort of women and children enrolled in the Conditions Affecting Neurocognitive Development and Learning in Early Childhood study from 2006 to 2011 (Shelby County, TN; N = 1222). Using quasi-experimental difference-in-differences analysis, we compared measures of growth, cognitive, and socioemotional development between WIC recipients and nonrecipients before and after the policy revision.

RESULTS

The revised WIC food package led to increased length-for-age z scores at 12 months among infants whose mothers received the revised food package during pregnancy (β = .33, 95% confidence interval: 0.05 to 0.61) and improved Bayley Scales of Infant Development cognitive composite scores at 24 months (β = 4.34, 95% confidence interval: 1.11 to 7.57). We observed no effects on growth at age 24 months or age 4 to 6 years or cognitive development at age 4 to 6 years.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides some of the first evidence that children of mothers who received the revised WIC food package during pregnancy had improved developmental outcomes in the first 2 years of life. These findings highlight the value of WIC in improving early developmental outcomes among vulnerable children. The need to implement and expand policies supporting the health of marginalized groups has never been more salient, particularly given the nation's rising economic and social disparities.

Associations between Governmental Policies to Improve the Nutritional Quality of Supermarket Purchases and Individual, Retailer, and Community Health Outcomes: An Integrative Review

Supermarkets are natural and important settings for implementing environmental interventions to improve healthy eating, and governmental policies could help improve the nutritional quality of purchases in this setting. This review aimed to: (1) identify governmental policies in the United States (U.S.), including regulatory and legislative actions of federal, tribal, state, and local governments, designed to promote healthy choices in supermarkets; and (2) synthesize evidence of these policies' effects on retailers, consumers, and community health. We searched five policy databases and developed a list of seven policy actions that meet our inclusion criteria: calorie labeling of prepared foods in supermarkets; increasing U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) benefits; financial incentives for the purchase of fruit and vegetables; sweetened beverage taxes; revisions to the USDA Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) food package; financial assistance for supermarkets to open in underserved areas; and allowing online purchases with SNAP. We searched PubMed, Econlit, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Business Source Ultimate to identify peer-reviewed, academic, English-language literature published at any time until January 2020; 147 studies were included in the review. Sweetened beverage taxes, revisions to the WIC food package, and financial incentives for fruits and vegetables were associated with improvements in dietary behaviors (food purchases and/or consumption). Providing financial incentives to supermarkets to open in underserved areas and increases in SNAP benefits were not associated with changes in food purchasing or diet quality but may improve food security. More research is needed to understand the effects of calorie labeling in supermarkets and online SNAP purchasing.