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Ahsan Ashraf M, Celik T. Evaluating radiofrequency electromagnetic field exposure in confined spaces: a systematic review of recent studies and future directions. RADIATION PROTECTION DOSIMETRY 2024; 200:598-616. [PMID: 38491820 PMCID: PMC11033578 DOI: 10.1093/rpd/ncae045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/10/2024] [Indexed: 03/18/2024]
Abstract
This study reviews recent research on Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Field (RF-EMF) exposure in confined environments, focusing on methodologies and parameters. Studies typically evaluate RF-EMF exposure using an electric field and specific absorption rate but fail to consider temperature rise in the tissues in confined environments. The study highlights the investigation of RF-EMF exposure in subterranean environments such as subways, tunnels and mines. Future research should evaluate the exposure of communication devices in such environments, considering the surrounding environment. Such studies will aid in understanding the risks and developing effective mitigation strategies to protect workers and the general public.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Ahsan Ashraf
- Sibanye-Stillwater Digital Mining Laboratory (DigiMine), University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2000, South Africa
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2000, South Africa
| | - Turgay Celik
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2000, South Africa
- Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Agder, 4630 Kristiansand, Norway
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da L A Silva J, de Sousa VA, Rodrigues MEC, Pinheiro FSR, da Silva GS, Mendonça HB, de F H Silva RQ, da Silva JVL, Galdino FES, de Carvalho VFC, Medeiros LIC. Human Exposure to Non-Ionizing Radiation from Indoor Distributed Antenna System: Shopping Mall Measurement Analysis. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:4579. [PMID: 37430493 DOI: 10.3390/s23104579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
It is crucial to monitor the levels of Non-Ionizing Radiation (NIR) to which the general population may be exposed and compare them to the limits defined in the current standards, in view of the rapid rise of communication services and the prospects of a connected society. A high number of people visits shopping malls and since these locations usually have several indoor antennas close to the public, it is therefore a kind of place that must be evaluated. Thus, this work presents measurements of the electric field in a shopping mall located in Natal, Brazil. We proposed a set of six measurement points, following two criteria: places with great the flow of people and the presence of one or more Distributed Antenna System (DAS), co-sited or not with WiFi access points. Results are presented and discussed in terms of the distance to DAS (conditions: near and far) and flow density of people in the mall (scenarios: low and high number of people). The highest peaks of electric field measured were 1.96 and 3.26 V/m, respectively corresponding to 5% and 8% of the limits defined by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) and the Brazilian National Telecommunication Agency (ANATEL).
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Affiliation(s)
- Júlia da L A Silva
- Graduate Program in Electrical and Computer Engineering (PPgEEC), Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal 59078-970, Brazil
| | - Vicente A de Sousa
- Graduate Program in Electrical and Computer Engineering (PPgEEC), Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal 59078-970, Brazil
| | - Marcio E C Rodrigues
- Department of Communications Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal 59078-970, Brazil
| | | | - Gutembergue Soares da Silva
- Department of Communications Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal 59078-970, Brazil
| | | | - Ricardo Q de F H Silva
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal 59078-970, Brazil
| | - João V L da Silva
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal 59078-970, Brazil
| | - Fernanda E S Galdino
- Department of Communications Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal 59078-970, Brazil
| | - Vitor F C de Carvalho
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal 59078-970, Brazil
| | - Lucas I C Medeiros
- Graduate Program in Electrical and Computer Engineering (PPgEEC), Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal 59078-970, Brazil
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Tyrakis C, Theodorou K, Kiouvrekis Y, Alexias A, Kappas C. Radiofrequency Exposure Levels in Greece. Bioelectromagnetics 2023; 44:17-25. [PMID: 36786436 DOI: 10.1002/bem.22434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Revised: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023]
Abstract
Medical Physics Department (Medical School, University of Thessaly) participated in a Greek National EMF research program (EDBM34) with the scope to measure and evaluate radiofrequency (RF) exposure (27-3000 MHz) in areas of sensitive land use. A thousand (1000) measurements were carried out at two "metropolitan locations" (Athens and Thessaloniki: 624 points) and several rest urban/rural locations (376 points). SRM 3006 spectrum analyzer manufactured by Narda Safety Test Solutions was used. The broadband mean electric field in metropolitan areas was 0.41 V/m, while in the rest of Greece was 0.36 V/m. In metropolitan areas, the predominant RF source was the TV and Radio FM signals (36.2% mean contribution to the total RF exposure level). In the rest areas, the predominant source was the systems of the meteorological and military/defensive service (31.1%). The mobile sector contributed 14.9% in metropolitan areas versus 12.2% in the rest of Greece. The predominant mobile source was 900 MHz in both cases (4.5% in metropolitan areas vs. 3.3% in the rest of Greece). The total exposure from all RF sources complied with the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) 2020 safety guidelines [ICNIRP, 2020]. The maximum exposure level was 0.129% of the limit for the metropolitan areas vs. 0.110% for the rest of Greece. Nonremarkable differences between metropolitan areas' exposure and the rest of Greece. In most cases, new 5 G antennas will be added to the existing base stations. Thus, the total exposure may be increased, leading to higher safety distances. © 2023 Bioelectromagnetics Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charilaos Tyrakis
- Department of Medical Physics, Faculty of Medicine University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | - Kiki Theodorou
- Department of Medical Physics, Faculty of Medicine University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | - Yiannis Kiouvrekis
- Department of Public and One Health, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Thessaly, Greece
| | - Aris Alexias
- Department of Medical Physics, Faculty of Medicine University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | - Constantin Kappas
- Department of Medical Physics, Faculty of Medicine University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
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Yamazaki K, Ikeda-Araki A, Miyashita C, Tamura N, Yoshikawa T, Hikage T, Omiya M, Mizuta M, Ikuyo M, Tobita K, Onishi T, Taki M, Watanabe S, Kishi R. Measurement of personal radio frequency exposure in Japan: The Hokkaido Study on the Environment and Children's health. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 216:114429. [PMID: 36174753 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.114429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The opportunities for exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) among children are increasing. Children's exposure to RF-EMF in Japan was recorded using a personal exposure meter (ExpoM-RF), and factors associated with the exposure examined. A total of 101 children, aged 10-15 years old, participated in the prospective birth cohort "Hokkaido study". RF-EMF data were recorded in the 700 MHz-5.8 GHz frequency range for 3 days. The recorded data were summarized into six groups of frequency bands: downlink from mobile phone base stations (DL), uplink from mobile phones to a base station (UL), Wireless Local Area Network (LAN), terrestrial digital TV broadcasting (digital TV), 2.5 GHz and 3.5 GHz Time Division Duplex (TDD), 1.9 GHz TDD, and total (the summation of power density in all measured frequency bands). A questionnaire was used to document the internet environment (at home) and mobile phone usage. Personal RF-EMF exposure in Japanese children was lower than that reported in studies in Europe. The DL signals from mobile phone base stations were the most significant contributors to total exposure, while Wireless LAN and digital TV were only higher at home. The urban residence was consistently associated with increases in the four groups of frequency bands (DL, UL, digital TV, and TDD). TDD level has several associations with mobile phone usage (calls using mobile phones, video viewing, text message service, and online game). The association between inattention/hyperactivity subscale of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and higher Wireless LAN exposure at nighttime was also noted. Further studies with additional data will shed light on factors involved in RF-EMF exposure among Japanese children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiko Yamazaki
- Center for Environmental and Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
| | - Atsuko Ikeda-Araki
- Center for Environmental and Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan; Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 0600812, Japan.
| | - Chihiro Miyashita
- Center for Environmental and Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
| | - Naomi Tamura
- Center for Environmental and Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
| | - Toshio Yoshikawa
- Center for Environmental and Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
| | - Takashi Hikage
- Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 0600814, Japan.
| | - Manabu Omiya
- Information Initiative Center, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 0600811, Japan.
| | - Masahiro Mizuta
- Information Initiative Center, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 0600811, Japan.
| | - Miwa Ikuyo
- Applied Electromagnetic Research Center, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Tokyo, 1840015, Japan.
| | - Kazuhiro Tobita
- Applied Electromagnetic Research Center, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Tokyo, 1840015, Japan.
| | - Teruo Onishi
- Applied Electromagnetic Research Center, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Tokyo, 1840015, Japan.
| | - Masao Taki
- Applied Electromagnetic Research Center, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Tokyo, 1840015, Japan.
| | - Soichi Watanabe
- Applied Electromagnetic Research Center, National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, Tokyo, 1840015, Japan.
| | - Reiko Kishi
- Center for Environmental and Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
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Mazloum T, Wang S, Hamdi M, Ashenafi Mulugeta B, Wiart J. Artificial Neural Network-Based Uplink Power Prediction From Multi-Floor Indoor Measurement Campaigns in 4G Networks. Front Public Health 2021; 9:777798. [PMID: 34917582 PMCID: PMC8669482 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.777798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Paving the path toward the fifth generation (5G) of wireless networks with a huge increase in the number of user equipment has strengthened public concerns on human exposure to radio-frequency electromagnetic fields (RF EMFs). This requires an assessment and monitoring of RF EMF exposure, in an almost continuous way. Particular interest goes to the uplink (UL) exposure, assessed through the transmission power of the mobile phone, due to its close proximity to the human body. However, the UL transmit (TX) power is not provided by the off-the-shelf modem and RF devices. In this context, we first conduct measurement campaigns in a multi-floor indoor environment using a drive test solution to record both downlink (DL) and UL connection parameters for Long Term Evolution (LTE) networks. Several usage services (including WhatsApp voice calls, WhatsApp video calls, and file uploading) are investigated in the measurement campaigns. Then, we propose an artificial neural network (ANN) model to estimate the UL TX power, by exploiting easily available parameters such as the DL connection indicators and the information related to an indoor environment. With those easy-accessed input features, the proposed ANN model is able to obtain an accurate estimation of UL TX power with a mean absolute error (MAE) of 1.487 dB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taghrid Mazloum
- Chaire C2M, LTCI, Télécom Paris, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, Palaiseau, France
| | - Shanshan Wang
- Chaire C2M, LTCI, Télécom Paris, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, Palaiseau, France
| | - Maryem Hamdi
- Chaire C2M, LTCI, Télécom Paris, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, Palaiseau, France
| | | | - Joe Wiart
- Chaire C2M, LTCI, Télécom Paris, Institut Polytechnique de Paris, Palaiseau, France
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