Assessment of lead exposure risk in locksmiths

Presence and concentration of lead in keys and keyring items

OBJECTIVES

Environmental lead is a persistent hazard that disproportionately affects children. Keys are known sources of lead exposure in children, but little is known about the specific lead content or frequency of lead in keys. We identified differences in lead concentration and frequency across items with different physical characteristics.

METHODS

This study tested a convenience sample of keys and keychain objects using an X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) analyzer.

RESULTS

The mean lead concentration across 362 objects tested was 1722 ppm (SD 3657 ppm; range 95.5-44 400 ppm). Lead was present in the majority (64%) of objects tested. Door keys had the highest concentration of lead (mean 2646 ppm; SD 3701 ppm). Door keys had significantly more lead than both vehicle keys (p<0.0001) and electronic fobs (p=0.0004). Gold-coloured keys contained significantly more lead than silver-coloured keys (p<0.0001). Copied keys were significantly more likely to contain detectable levels of lead compared with original keys (p<0.0001); however, this relationship was not significant when controlling for key type. There was a positive association between key age and lead concentration (p=0.009).

CONCLUSION

Keys were less likely to contain lead if they were silver-coloured; car keys or electronic fobs; and newer. However, several categories of keys with less lead contained high lead levels, and the majority of items tested (64%) contained more lead than limits on lead in keys that were implemented in Minnesota after data collection (90 ppm). The levels of lead identified highlight the need for public education and potential additional regulatory guidelines for keys.

Association between blood lead level and blood pressure: An occupational population-based study in Jiangsu province, China

Studies about the association between lead exposure and the elevation of blood pressure and risk of hypertension are varied, while available data on blood lead levels (BLL) in workers with lead-exposure are scarce. This research aimed to evaluate associations between BLL and blood pressure in an occupational population-based study in Jiangsu province, China. We enrolled 21,688 workers in this study. Information on socioeconomic and occupational background was obtained with face-to-face interviews. BLL, systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) were measured, and hypertension status was confirmed. We found that workers in mini-factories had the highest average BLL (20.3 μg/dL; 95% CI, 19.0-21.6 μg/dL) for overall participants. The employees in private factories had higher BLL (9.6 μg/dL; 95% CI, 9.5-9.8 μg/dL). However, BLL was much lower (4.0 μg/dL; 95%CI, 3.7-4.2 μg/dL) in state-owned factories. Participants working in the electrical machinery and equipment manufacturing industry had higher BLL (9.1 μg/dL; 95% CI, 9.0-9.3μg/dL). Compared to those workers with ≤ 4.6 μg/dL BLL, workers with > 17.5 μg/dL BLL presented 1.34 mmHg and 0.70 mmHg average difference in SBP and DBP, respectively. The adjusted OR for hypertension was 1.11 (95%CI, 1.08-1.15) compared to the workers with > 17.5 μg/dL BLL and to those with ≤ 4.6 μg/dL BLL. In summary, we found that BLL was positively associated with SBP and DBP and with the morbidity of hypertension in occupational populations with a high concentration of lead exposure. It is important to formulate new standards of blood lead levels to screen for elevated lead exposure. In addition, a series of new systems of risk assessment should be established to further reduce and prevent lead exposure.

[Left ventricular projectile migration after an accidental close-range gunshot wound]

We report the case of a 24-year-old female after sustaining a shotgun wound in the left upper extremity and chest. Initial emergency diagnostics revealed numerous shotgun pellets scattered throughout the left-side soft tissue, chest and upper lung lobe with one pellet having migrated into the left ventricle of the heart.Due to the devastating injury pattern, gunshot wounds are interdisciplinarily challenging and should include extended initial diagnostics, such as contrast agent CT. The potential toxicity of elevated lead blood levels have to be taken into further account.

Predictors of blood lead in children in Chennai, India (2005-2006)

Lead has been phased out of gasoline in India since 2001. However, elevated blood lead levels continue to be reported, and little is known about the predictors of lead exposure. The purpose of this study was to examine the lead burden and identify possible predictors of blood lead among children in Chennai, India after the phase-out of leaded gasoline. Subjects were children from twelve schools in Chennai. Venous blood was collected and analyzed for lead. Demographic, environmental, and nutritional information was collected using questionnaires administered to the primary caregiver. Generalized estimating equations were used to assess predictors of blood lead. We found that lead exposure remains elevated among children four or more years after the phase-out of lead from gasoline. Industrial activity, water storage vessels, and lower socio-economic status are predictors of elevated blood lead in this population, but additional work is required to better define preventable risk factors.