Using Eye Tracking to Explore Differences in Map-Based Spatial Ability between Geographers and Non-Geographers

An Empirical Study on the Effects of Temporal Trends in Spatial Patterns on Animated Choropleth Maps

Animated cartographic visualization incorporates the concept of geomedia presented in this Special Issue. The presented study aims to examine the effectiveness of spatial pattern and temporal trend recognition on animated choropleth maps. In a controlled laboratory experiment with participants and eye tracking, fifteen animated maps were used to show a different spatial patterns and temporal trends. The participants’ task was to correctly detect the patterns and trends on a choropleth map. The study results show that effective spatial pattern and temporal trend recognition on a choropleth map is related to participants’ visual behavior. Visual attention clustered in the central part of the choropleth map supports effective spatio-temporal relationship recognition. The larger the area covered by the fixation cluster, the higher the probability of correct temporal trend and spatial pattern recognition. However, animated choropleth maps are more suitable for presenting temporal trends than spatial patterns. Understanding the difficulty in the correct recognition of spatio-temporal relationships might be a reason for implementing techniques that support effective visual searches such as highlighting, cartographic redundancy, or interactive tools. For end-users, the presented study reveals the necessity of the application of a specific visual strategy. Focusing on the central part of the map is the most effective strategy for the recognition of spatio-temporal relationships.

Exploring the Cognitive Load of Expert and Novice Map Users Using EEG and Eye Tracking

The main objective of this research is to explore the cognitive processes of expert and novice map users during the retrieval of map-related information, within varying difficulty levels (i.e., easy, moderate, hard), by using eye tracking and electroencephalogram (EEG). In this context, we present a spatial memory experiment consisting of a large number of stimuli to study the effect of task difficulty on map users’ behavior through cognitive load measurements. Next to the reaction time and success rate, we used fixation and saccade related eye tracking metrics (i.e., average fixation duration, the number of fixations per second, saccade amplitude and saccade velocity), and EEG power spectrum (i.e., event-related changes in alpha and theta frequency bands) to identify the cognitive load. While fixation metrics indicated no statistically significant difference between experts and novices, saccade metrics proved the otherwise. EEG power spectral density analysis, on the other side, suggested an increase in theta (i.e., event-related synchronization) and a decrease in alpha (except moderate tasks) (i.e., event-related desynchronization) at all difficulty levels of the task for both experts and novices, which is an indicator of cognitive load. Although no significant difference emerged between two groups, we found a significant difference in their overall performances when the participants were classified as good and relatively bad learners. Triangulating EEG results with the recorded eye tracking data and the qualitative analysis of focus maps indeed provided a detailed insight on the differences of the individuals’ cognitive processes during this spatial memory task.

User Experience in Using Graphical User Interfaces of Web Maps

The purpose of this article is to show the differences in users’ experience when performing an interactive task with GUI buttons arrangement based on Google Maps and OpenStreetMap in a simulation environment. The graphical user interface is part of an interactive multimedia map, and the interaction experience depends mainly on it. For this reason, we performed an eye-tracking experiment with users to examine how people experience interaction through the GUI. Based on the results related to eye movement, we presented several valuable recommendations for the design of interactive multimedia maps. For better GUI efficiency, it is suitable to group buttons with similar functions in screen corners. Users first analyze corners and only then search for the desired button. The frequency of using a given web map does not translate into generally better performance while using any GUI. Users perform more efficiently if they work with the preferred GUI.

What Went Wrong for Bad Solvers during Thematic Map Analysis? Lessons Learned from an Eye-Tracking Study

Thematic map analysis is a complex and challenging task that might result in map user failure for many reasons. In the study reported here, we wanted to search for differences between successful and unsuccessful map users, focusing—unlike many similar studies—on strategies applied by users who give incorrect answers. In the eye-tracking study, followed by a questionnaire survey, we collected data from 39 participants. The eye-tracking data were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively to compare participants’ strategies from various perspectives. Unlike the results of some other studies, it turned out that unsuccessful participants show some similarities that are consistent across most analyzed tasks. The main issues that characterize bad solvers relate to improper use of the thematic legend, the inability to focus on relevant map layout elements, as well as on adequate map content. Moreover, they differed in the general problem-solving approach used as they, for example, tended to choose fast, less cautious, strategies. Based on the collected results, we developed tips that could help prevent unsuccessful participants ending with an incorrect answer and therefore be beneficial in map use education.

A Fusion Visualization Method for Disaster Information Based on Self-Explanatory Symbols and Photorealistic Scene Cooperation

Scientific and appropriate visualizations increase the effectiveness and readability of disaster information. However, existing fusion visualization methods for disaster scenes have some deficiencies, such as the low efficiency of scene visualization and difficulties with disaster information recognition and sharing. In this paper, a fusion visualization method for disaster information, based on self-explanatory symbols and photorealistic scene cooperation, was proposed. The self-explanatory symbol and photorealistic scene cooperation method, the construction of spatial semantic rules, and fusion visualization with spatial semantic constraints were discussed in detail. Finally, a debris flow disaster was selected for experimental analysis. The experimental results show that the proposed method can effectively realize the fusion visualization of disaster information, effectively express disaster information, maintain high-efficiency visualization, and provide decision-making information support to users involved in the disaster process.

Using Eye Tracking to Explore the Impacts of Geography Courses on Map-based Spatial Ability

As part of geography education, geography courses play an important role in the development of spatial ability. However, how geography courses affect map-based spatial ability has not been well documented. In this study, we use an eye-tracking method to explore the impact of geography courses on map-based spatial ability. We recruited 55 undergraduates from Beijing Normal University (BNU) to attend the map-based spatial ability test before and after six-month geography courses arranged by the Faculty of Geographical Science, BNU. The results show that the participants’ map-based spatial ability significantly improved after taking the geography courses; specifically, accuracy increased by 22.3% and response time decreased by 14.7% after training. We analysed two types of eye-movement behaviour; in terms of processing measures, the fixation duration of the topographic map decreased by 18.4% and the fixation distribution was more concentrated after training, and in terms of matching measures, participants have more switch times per second for both photographed scenes and topographic maps. Switch times between options decreased by 48.2%, which is a notable decrease. These empirical results are helpful for the design of geography courses that improve map-based spatial ability.