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Raeisi H, Safarnejad MR, Sadeghkhani F. A new single-chain variable fragment (scFv) antibody provides sensitive and specific detection of citrus tristeza virus. J Virol Methods 2021; 300:114412. [PMID: 34896452 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2021.114412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 09/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) is the most economically important virus disease of citrus worldwide. To develop a specific serological assay for CTV, a Tomlinson phage display antibody library of single chain variable fragments (scFv) was screened with a recombinant CTV coat protein (CTV-CP) heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli. The phage clones were checked by ELISA to identify clones with high specificity for CTV-CP. Eight clones were strongly reactive with CTV-CP. Nucleotide sequencing of these clones revealed that all of them contained the same sequence. Thus, the phage-displayed scFv antibody was termed scFvF10. Evaluation of scFvF10 binding to CTV-CP by plate-trapped antigen ELISA (PTA-ELISA) and immunoblotting, showed that it was specific and allowed sensitive detection of CTV-CP. Homology-based molecular modeling and docking analysis confirmed that the interaction between CTV-CP and scFvF10, with a binding energy of -738 kj mol-1, occurred mainly by 12 intermolecular hydrogen bonds. Moreover, triple-antibody sandwich (TAS)-ELISA using scFvF10 as second antibody showed high sensitivity in the detection of CTV infected samples. The CTV detection limit of scFvF10 by PTA-ELISA and TAS-ELISA were 0.05 and 0.01 μg CP/mL, respectively. Our results with different diagnostic assays demonstrated that scFvF10 has the potential to be used as an efficient tool for CTV-infected plant diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamideh Raeisi
- Foodborne and Waterborne Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mohammad Reza Safarnejad
- Department of Plant Viruses, Iranian Research Institute of Plant Protection, Agricultural Research Education and Extension Organization of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Farideh Sadeghkhani
- Department of Life Sciences Engineering, Faculty of New Sciences and Technologies, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran
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2
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Roth KDR, Wenzel EV, Ruschig M, Steinke S, Langreder N, Heine PA, Schneider KT, Ballmann R, Fühner V, Kuhn P, Schirrmann T, Frenzel A, Dübel S, Schubert M, Moreira GMSG, Bertoglio F, Russo G, Hust M. Developing Recombinant Antibodies by Phage Display Against Infectious Diseases and Toxins for Diagnostics and Therapy. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:697876. [PMID: 34307196 PMCID: PMC8294040 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.697876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibodies are essential molecules for diagnosis and treatment of diseases caused by pathogens and their toxins. Antibodies were integrated in our medical repertoire against infectious diseases more than hundred years ago by using animal sera to treat tetanus and diphtheria. In these days, most developed therapeutic antibodies target cancer or autoimmune diseases. The COVID-19 pandemic was a reminder about the importance of antibodies for therapy against infectious diseases. While monoclonal antibodies could be generated by hybridoma technology since the 70ies of the former century, nowadays antibody phage display, among other display technologies, is robustly established to discover new human monoclonal antibodies. Phage display is an in vitro technology which confers the potential for generating antibodies from universal libraries against any conceivable molecule of sufficient size and omits the limitations of the immune systems. If convalescent patients or immunized/infected animals are available, it is possible to construct immune phage display libraries to select in vivo affinity-matured antibodies. A further advantage is the availability of the DNA sequence encoding the phage displayed antibody fragment, which is packaged in the phage particles. Therefore, the selected antibody fragments can be rapidly further engineered in any needed antibody format according to the requirements of the final application. In this review, we present an overview of phage display derived recombinant antibodies against bacterial, viral and eukaryotic pathogens, as well as microbial toxins, intended for diagnostic and therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristian Daniel Ralph Roth
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Esther Veronika Wenzel
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany.,Abcalis GmbH, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Maximilian Ruschig
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Stephan Steinke
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Nora Langreder
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Philip Alexander Heine
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Kai-Thomas Schneider
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Rico Ballmann
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Viola Fühner
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Stefan Dübel
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany.,Abcalis GmbH, Braunschweig, Germany.,YUMAB GmbH, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Maren Schubert
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | | | - Federico Bertoglio
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Giulio Russo
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany.,Abcalis GmbH, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Michael Hust
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany.,YUMAB GmbH, Braunschweig, Germany
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3
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Shahmirzaie M, Safarnejad MR, Rakhshandehroo F, Safarpour H, Shirazi FH, Zamanizadeh HR, Elbeaino T. Generation and molecular docking analysis of specific single-chain variable fragments selected by phage display against the recombinant nucleocapsid protein of fig mosaic virus. J Virol Methods 2020; 276:113796. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2019.113796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Revised: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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4
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Wang T, Li P, Zhang Q, Zhang W, Zhang Z, Wang T, He T. Determination of Aspergillus pathogens in agricultural products by a specific nanobody-polyclonal antibody sandwich ELISA. Sci Rep 2017; 7:4348. [PMID: 28659622 PMCID: PMC5489487 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-04195-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 05/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus and its poisonous mycotoxins are distributed worldwide throughout the environment and are of particular interest in agriculture and food safety. In order to develop a specific method for rapid detection of Aspergillus flavus to forecast diseases and control aflatoxins, a nanobody, PO8-VHH, highly reactive to A. flavus was isolated from an immunized alpaca nanobody library by phage display. The nanobody was verified to bind to the components of extracellular and intracellular antigen from both A. flavus and A. parasiticus. To construct a sandwich format immunoassay, polyclonal antibodies against Aspergillus were raised with rabbits. Finally, a highly selective nanobody-polyclonal antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was optimized and developed. The results revealed that the detection limits of the two fungi were as low as 1 μg mL-1, and that it is able to detect fungal concentrations below to 2 μg mg-1 of peanut and maize grains in both artificially and naturally contaminated samples. Therefore, we here provided a rapid and simple method for monitoring Aspergillus spp. contamination in agricultural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Wang
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Detection for Mycotoxins, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China
| | - Peiwu Li
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China.
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China.
- Key Laboratory of Detection for Mycotoxins, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China.
- Laboratory of Risk Assessment for Oilseeds Products, Wuhan, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China.
- Quality Inspection and Test Center for Oilseeds Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China.
| | - Qi Zhang
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China.
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China.
- Key Laboratory of Detection for Mycotoxins, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China.
| | - Wen Zhang
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Detection for Mycotoxins, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China
- Quality Inspection and Test Center for Oilseeds Products, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhaowei Zhang
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China
- Laboratory of Risk Assessment for Oilseeds Products, Wuhan, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China
| | - Tong Wang
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Detection for Mycotoxins, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China
| | - Ting He
- Oil Crops Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Oil Crops, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Detection for Mycotoxins, Ministry of Agriculture, Wuhan, 430062, People's Republic of China
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5
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Lee W, Syed Atif A, Tan SC, Leow CH. Insights into the chicken IgY with emphasis on the generation and applications of chicken recombinant monoclonal antibodies. J Immunol Methods 2017; 447:71-85. [PMID: 28502720 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2017.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Revised: 03/02/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The advantages of chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) antibodies as immunodiagnostic and immunotherapeutic biomolecules has only been recently recognized. Even so, chicken antibodies remain less-well characterized than their mammalian counterparts. This review aims at providing a current overview of the structure, function, development and generation of chicken antibodies. Additionally, brief but comprehensive insights into current knowledge pertaining to the immunogenetic framework and diversity-generation of the chicken immunoglobulin repertoire which have contributed to the establishment of recombinant chicken mAb-generating methods are discussed. Focus is provided on the current methods used to generate antibodies from chickens with added emphasis on the generation of recombinant chicken mAbs and its derivative formats. The advantages and limitations of established protocols for the generation of chicken mAbs are highlighted. The various applications of recombinant chicken mAbs and its derivative formats in immunodiagnostics and immunotherapy are further detailed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warren Lee
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Ali Syed Atif
- New Iberia Research Center, University of Louisiana at Lafayette4401 W Admiral Doyle Dr, New Iberia, LA 70560, United States
| | - Soo Choon Tan
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Chiuan Herng Leow
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia.
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6
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Kuhn P, Fühner V, Unkauf T, Moreira GMSG, Frenzel A, Miethe S, Hust M. Recombinant antibodies for diagnostics and therapy against pathogens and toxins generated by phage display. Proteomics Clin Appl 2016; 10:922-948. [PMID: 27198131 PMCID: PMC7168043 DOI: 10.1002/prca.201600002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2016] [Revised: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Antibodies are valuable molecules for the diagnostic and treatment of diseases caused by pathogens and toxins. Traditionally, these antibodies are generated by hybridoma technology. An alternative to hybridoma technology is the use of antibody phage display to generate recombinant antibodies. This in vitro technology circumvents the limitations of the immune system and allows—in theory—the generation of antibodies against all conceivable molecules. Phage display technology enables obtaining human antibodies from naïve antibody gene libraries when either patients are not available or immunization is not ethically feasible. On the other hand, if patients or immunized/infected animals are available, it is common to construct immune phage display libraries to select in vivo affinity‐matured antibodies. Because the phage packaged DNA sequence encoding the antibodies is directly available, the antibodies can be smoothly engineered according to the requirements of the final application. In this review, an overview of phage display derived recombinant antibodies against bacterial, viral, and eukaryotic pathogens as well as toxins for diagnostics and therapy is given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Kuhn
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Viola Fühner
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Tobias Unkauf
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Braunschweig, Germany
| | | | - André Frenzel
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Braunschweig, Germany.,YUMAB GmbH, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Sebastian Miethe
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Michael Hust
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Braunschweig, Germany.
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7
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Al-Maqtoofi M, Thornton CR. Detection of human pathogenic Fusarium species in hospital and communal sink biofilms by using a highly specific monoclonal antibody. Environ Microbiol 2016; 18:3620-3634. [PMID: 26914362 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Accepted: 01/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The fungus Fusarium is well known as a plant pathogen, but has recently emerged as an opportunistic pathogen of humans. Habitats providing direct human exposure to infectious propagules are largely unknown, but there is growing evidence that plumbing systems are sources of human pathogenic strains in the Fusarium solani species complex (FSSC) and Fusarium oxysporum species complex (FOSC), the most common groups infecting humans. Here, a newly developed Fusarium-specific monoclonal antibody (mAb ED7) was used to track FSSC and FOSC strains in sink drain biofilms by detecting its target antigen, an extracellular 200 kDa carbohydrate, in saline swabs. The antigen was detectable in 52% of swab samples collected from sinks across a University campus and a tertiary care hospital. The mAb was 100% accurate in detecting FSSC, FOSC, and F. dimerum species complex (FDSC) strains that were present, as mixed fungal communities, in 83% of sink drain biofilms. Specificity of the ELISA was confirmed by sequencing of the internally transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1)-5.8S-ITS2 rRNA-encoding regions of culturable yeasts and molds that were recovered using mycological culture, while translation elongation factor (TEF)-1α analysis of Fusarium isolates included FSSC 1-a, FOSC 33, and FDSC ET-gr, the most common clinical pathotypes in each group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marwan Al-Maqtoofi
- Biosciences, Geoffrey Pope Building, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK.,University of Basrah, College of Science, Biology Department, Basrah, Iraq
| | - Christopher R Thornton
- Biosciences, Geoffrey Pope Building, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
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8
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Hu ZQ, Li HP, Liu JL, Xue S, Gong AD, Zhang JB, Liao YC. Production of a phage-displayed mouse ScFv antibody against fumonisin B1 and molecular docking analysis of their interactions. BIOTECHNOL BIOPROC E 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s12257-015-0495-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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9
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An affinity improved single-chain antibody from phage display of a library derived from monoclonal antibodies detects fumonisins by immunoassay. Anal Chim Acta 2015; 867:74-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2015.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2015] [Revised: 02/06/2015] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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10
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Farajnia S, Ahmadzadeh V, Tanomand A, Veisi K, Khosroshahi SA, Rahbarnia L. Development trends for generation of single-chain antibody fragments. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2014; 36:297-308. [DOI: 10.3109/08923973.2014.945126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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11
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Xue S, Li HP, Zhang JB, Liu JL, Hu ZQ, Gong AD, Huang T, Liao YC. Chicken single-chain antibody fused to alkaline phosphatase detects Aspergillus pathogens and their presence in natural samples by direct sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Anal Chem 2013; 85:10992-9. [PMID: 24128348 DOI: 10.1021/ac402608e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
A sensitive and specific analytical method to detect ubiquitous aflatoxigenic Aspergillus pathogens is essential for monitoring and controlling aflatoxins. Four highly reactive chicken single-chain variable fragments (scFvs) against soluble cell wall proteins (SCWPs) from Aspergillus flavus were isolated by phage display. The scFv antibody AfSA4 displayed the highest activity toward both A. flavus and A. parasiticus and specifically recognized a surface target of their cell walls as revealed by immunofluorescence localization. Molecular modeling revealed a unique compact motif on the antibody surface mainly involving L-CDR2 and H-CDR3. As measured by surface plasmon resonance, AfSA4 fused to alkaline phosphatase had a higher binding capability and 6-fold higher affinity compared with AfSA4 alone. Immunoblot analyses showed that the fusion had good binding capacity to SCWP components from the two fungal species. Direct sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays with mouse antiaspergillus monoclonal antibody mAb2A8 generated in parallel as a capture antibody revealed that the detection limit of the two fungi was as low as 10(-3) μg/mL, 1000-fold more sensitive than that reported previously (1 μg/mL). The fusion protein was able to detect fungal concentrations below 1 μg/g of maize and peanut grains in both artificially and naturally contaminated samples, with at least 10-fold more sensitivity than that reported (10 μg/g) thus far. Thus, the fusion can be applied in rapid, simple, and specific diagnosis of Aspergillus contamination in field and stored food/feed commodities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Xue
- Molecular Biotechnology Laboratory of Triticeae Crops, Huazhong Agricultural University , Wuhan 430070, China
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12
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Thornton CR, Wills OE. Immunodetection of fungal and oomycete pathogens: established and emerging threats to human health, animal welfare and global food security. Crit Rev Microbiol 2013; 41:27-51. [PMID: 23734714 DOI: 10.3109/1040841x.2013.788995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Filamentous fungi (moulds), yeast-like fungi, and oomycetes cause life-threatening infections of humans and animals and are a major constraint to global food security, constituting a significant economic burden to both agriculture and medicine. As well as causing localized or systemic infections, certain species are potent producers of allergens and toxins that exacerbate respiratory diseases or cause cancer and organ damage. We review the pathogenic and toxigenic organisms that are etiologic agents of both animal and plant diseases or that have recently emerged as serious pathogens of immunocompromised individuals. The use of hybridoma and phage display technologies and their success in generating monoclonal antibodies for the detection and control of fungal and oomycete pathogens are explored. Monoclonal antibodies hold enormous potential for the development of rapid and specific tests for the diagnosis of human mycoses, however, unlike plant pathology, their use in medical mycology remains to be fully exploited.
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