Improved Chemotherapeutic Activity by Morus alba Fruits through Immune Response of Toll-Like Receptor 4

Microbiome-driven anticancer therapy: A step forward from natural products

Human microbiomes, considered as a new emerging and enabling cancer hallmark, are increasingly recognized as critical effectors in cancer development and progression. Manipulation of microbiome revitalizing anticancer therapy from natural products shows promise toward improving cancer outcomes. Herein, we summarize our current understanding of the human microbiome-driven molecular mechanisms impacting cancer progression and anticancer therapy. We highlight the potential translational and clinical implications of natural products for cancer prevention and treatment by developing targeted therapeutic strategies as adjuvants for chemotherapy and immunotherapy against tumorigenesis. The challenges and opportunities for future investigations using modulation of the microbiome for cancer treatment are further discussed in this review.

Morusinol extracted from Morus alba induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis via inhibition of DNA damage response in melanoma by CHK1 degradation through the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway

BACKGROUD

Flavonoids have a variety of biological activities, such as anti-inflammation, anti-tumor, anti-thrombosis and so on. Morusinol, as a novel isoprene flavonoid extracted from Morus alba root barks, has the effects of anti-arterial thrombosis and anti-inflammatory in previous studies. However, the anti-cancer mechanism of morusinol remains unclear.

PURPOSE

In present study, we mainly studied the anti-tumor effect of morusinol and its mode of action in melanoma.

METHODS

The anti-cancer effect of morusinol on melanoma were evaluated by using the MTT, EdU, plate clone formation and soft agar assay. Flow cytometry was used for detecting cell cycle and apoptosis. The ɣ-H2AX immunofluorescence and the alkaline comet assay were used to detect DNA damage and the Western blotting analysis was used to investigate the expressions of DNA-damage related proteins. Ubiquitination and turnover of CHK1 were also detected by using the immunoprecipitation assay. The cell line-derived xenograft (CDX) mouse models were used in vivo to evaluate the effect of morusinol on tumorigenicity.

RESULTS

We demonstrated that morusinol not only had the ability to inhibit cell proliferation, but also induced cell cycle arrest at G0/G1 phase, caspase-dependent apoptosis and DNA damage in human melanoma cells. In addition, morusinol effectively inhibited the growth of melanoma xenografts in vivo. More strikingly, CHK1, which played an important role in maintaining the integrity of cell cycle, genomic stability and cell viability, was down-regulated in a dose- and time-dependent manner after morusinol treatment. Further research showed that CHK1 was degraded by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Whereafter, morusinol-induced cell cycle arrest, apoptosis and DNA damage were partially salvaged by overexpressing CHK1 in melanoma cell lines. Herein, further experiments demonstrated that morusinol increased the sensitivity of dacarbazine (DTIC) to chemotherapy for melanoma in vitro and in vivo.

CONCLUSION

Morusinol induces CHK1 degradation through the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, thereby inducing cell cycle arrest, apoptosis and DNA damage response in melanoma. Our study firstly provided a theoretical basis for morusinol to be a candidate drug for clinical treatment of cancer, such as melanoma, alone or combinated with dacarbazine.

Mulberry extract ameliorates T2DM-related symptoms via AMPK pathway in STZ-HFD-induced C57BL/6J mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Mulberry (Morus alba L.) is not only a tasty food but also a beneficial medicinal substance that has been historically used to treat diabetes, as recorded in Tang Ben Cao. Recent research on animal models has shown that the ethyl acetate extract of Morus alba L. fruits (EMF) has hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic properties. However, there is a lack of documentation on the specific mechanisms through which EMF exerts its hypoglycemic effects.

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to investigate the impact of EMF on L6 cells and C57/BL6J mice and to elucidate the potential mechanisms underlying its effects. The findings of this study can contribute to the existing evidence for the application of EMF as a therapeutic drug or dietary supplement in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The UPLC-Q-TOF-MS technique was utilized to gather MS data. Masslynx 4.1 software in conjunction with the SciFinder database and other relevant references were used to analyze and identify the chemical composition of EMF. A series of in vitro investigations including MTT assay, glucose uptake assay and Western blot analysis were performed using an L6 cell model stably expressing IRAP-mOrange after EMF treatment. In vivo investigations were performed on a STZ-HFD co-induced T2DM mouse model, which included assessments of body composition, biochemical tests, histopathological analysis, and Western blot analysis.

RESULTS

MTT results revealed that EMF had no toxic effects on the cells at various concentrations. When EMF was administered to L6 cells, there was an increase in glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4) translocation activity and a significant dose-dependent enhancement of glucose uptake by L6 myotubes. EMF treatment led to a marked increase in P-AMPK levels and GLUT4 expression in the cells, but these effects were reversed by an AMPK inhibitor (Compound C). In diabetic mice with STZ-HFD-induced diabetes, EMF treatment improved oral glucose tolerance, hyperglycemia, and hyperinsulinemia. Furthermore, EMF supplementation significantly reduced insulin resistance (IR) in diabetic mice, as evaluated using a steady-state model of the insulin resistance index. Histopathological sections demonstrated that acute EMF treatment reduced hepatic steatosis, pancreatic damage, and adipocyte hypertrophy. Western blot analysis demonstrated that EMF treatment also reduced abnormally high PPARγ expression, elevated the level of p-AMPK and p-ACC, and augmented the abundance of GLUT4 in insulin-sensitive peripheral tissues.

SUMMARY

The results suggest that EMF may exert beneficial effects on T2DM through the AMPK/GLUT4 and AMPK/ACC pathways, as well as by regulating PPARγ expression.

Morus alba: a comprehensive phytochemical and pharmacological review

Morus alba is a fast-growing shrub or medium-sized tree with a straight, cylindrical trunk. Medicinally, whole plants, leaves, fruits, branches, and roots have been employed. Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were used to search for relevant material on the phytochemical components and pharmacologic and mechanism of action of the Morus alba. This was reviewed to assess important updates about Morus alba. The fruits of Morus alba have traditionally been used as an analgesic, anthelmintic, antibacterial, anti-rheumatic, diuretic, hypotensive, hypoglycemia, purgative, restorative, sedative tonic, and blood stimulant. Various plant parts were used as a cooling, sedating, diuretic, tonic, and astringent agent to treat nerve disorders. The plant contained tannins, steroids, phytosterols, sitosterol, glycosides, alkaloids, carbohydrates, proteins, and amino acids, as well as saponins, triterpenes, phenolics, flavonoids, benzofuran derivatives, anthocyanins, anthraquinones, glycosides, vitamins, and minerals. Previous pharmacological research identified antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, immunological, analgesic, antipyretic, antioxidant, anti-cancer, antidiabetic, gastrointestinal, respiratory, cardiovascular, hypolipidemic, anti-obesity, dermatological, neurological, muscular, and protecting effects. This study looked at Morus alba's traditional uses, chemical components, and pharmacological effects.

Network Pharmacology-Based Strategy to Investigate the Anti-Breast Cancer Mechanisms of Spatholobus suberectus Dunn

Spatholobus suberectus Dunn (SSD) possesses potential antitumor activity; however, the mechanism underlying its anti-proliferative effect on breast cancer is unclear. In this study, we explored potential SSD targets for breast cancer treatment through a network pharmacology approach. First, by integrating multiple databases, a total of 16 potential bioactive compounds and 252 targets were screened. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were screened by analyzing breast cancer gene chip data from The Cancer Genome Atlas and Gene Expression Omnibus databases. By overlapping drug targets and DEGs, 33 common targets were found; their functions were further analyzed with Gene Ontology and KEGG analysis. A network of 16 compounds and 33 common targets was constructed, from which 10 hub targets were identified using CytoHubba. Based on the KEGG result and network analysis, the 33 common targets were mainly enriched in the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) signaling pathway and PPARγ was identified as the potential target of SSD. Moreover, the 10 hub targets were correlated with prognosis and immune infiltration in breast cancer via bioinformatic analysis. Finally, molecular docking and experiments in vitro further verified the targeting ability and anti-breast cancer activity of SSD. SSD is promising in the treatment of breast cancer; PPARγ may be its potential therapeutic target.

Identification of Renoprotective Phytosterols from Mulberry (Morus alba) Fruit against Cisplatin-Induced Cytotoxicity in LLC-PK1 Kidney Cells

The aim of this study was to explore the protective effects of bioactive compounds from the fruit of the mulberry tree (Morus alba L.) against cisplatin-induced apoptosis in LLC-PK1 pig kidney epithelial cells. Morus alba fruit is a well-known edible fruit commonly used in traditional folk medicine. Chemical investigation of M. alba fruit resulted in the isolation and identification of six phytosterols (1-6). Their structures were determined as 7-ketositosterol (1), stigmast-4-en-3β-ol-6-one (2), (3β,6α)-stigmast-4-ene-3,6-diol (3), stigmast-4-ene-3β,6β-diol (4), 7β-hydroxysitosterol 3-O-β-d-glucoside (5), and 7α-hydroxysitosterol 3-O-β-d-glucoside (6) by analyzing their physical and spectroscopic data as well as liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry data. All compounds displayed protective effects against cisplatin-induced LLC-PK1 cell damage, improving cisplatin-induced cytotoxicity to more than 80% of the control value. Compound 1 displayed the best effect at a relatively low concentration by inhibiting the percentage of apoptotic cells following cisplatin treatment. Its molecular mechanisms were identified using Western blot assays. Treatment of LLC-PK1 cells with compound 1 decreased the upregulated phosphorylation of p38 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) following cisplatin treatment. In addition, compound 1 significantly suppressed cleaved caspase-3 in cisplatin-induced LLC-PK1 cells. Taken together, these findings indicated that cisplatin-induced apoptosis was significantly inhibited by compound 1 in LLC-PK1 cells, thereby supporting the potential of 7-ketositosterol (1) as an adjuvant candidate for treating cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity.

Pharmacological Activities for Morus alba L., Focusing on the Immunostimulatory Property from the Fruit Aqueous Extract

Depending on the extraction method, numerous compounds that have specific pharmacological effects can be obtained from M. alba L. There is a growing scientific interest in health problems related to aging. Efforts to develop safe immune-enhancing pharmaceuticals are increasing. This review aims to summarize and critically discuss the immunity enhancement effects and pharmaceutical efficacy of M. alba L. extracts. The scientific database search was conducted using Google Scholar, Web of Science, and PubMed until May 2021. Additional articles were identified and obtained from references in the retrieved articles. Ethanol or methanol extraction of various parts of M. alba L. identified a large amount of phenols and flavonoids, which are effective for immunosuppression, antioxidants, and cardiovascular diseases, and are antibacterial, and anticancer. Water extraction of M. alba L. enhanced the innate immune response based on immune cell activation. A polysaccharide and an alkaloid related to increased macrophage activity were isolated from M. alba L. fruit extracts. M. alba L. fruit water extracts primarily induced the production of pro-inflammatory substances, in model organisms, via TLR4 in immune cells. Water extracts have been shown to be effective in pathogen defense and tumor suppression by enhancing macrophage activity. Based on our literature review on the bioactivity of M. alba L. fruit extracts, particularly in relation to their immunity enhancement activity, we anticipate that M. alba-derived pharmaceuticals will have excellent potential in future medical research.

Black mulberry ethanol extract attenuates atherosclerosis-related inflammatory factors and downregulates PPARγ and CD36 genes in experimental atherosclerotic rats

Atherosclerosis (AS) is the pathological basis of various vascular diseases and currently is seriously affecting human health. Numerous studies have paid more attention to natural medicines with anti-AS properties. As a traditional Uygur folk medicine, black mulberry fruits are conventionally used in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases in southern Xinjiang of China, and their underlying mechanisms remain unknown. Our previous study revealed that the ethanol extract of black mulberry (EEBM) inhibited AS development by improving lipid metabolism abnormalities, enhancing anti-oxidative activities, and reducing atherosclerotic lesions of atherosclerotic rats. Based on this, our objective was to further investigate the effects of EEBM on the expression of AS-related inflammatory factors and the key genes PPARγ and CD36 of the ox-LDL-PPARγ-CD36 feed-forward cycle in experimental atherosclerotic rats. Black mulberry fruits were extracted with acid ethanol and chromatographed on an AB-8 macroporous resin to obtain EEBM. All experimental rats were randomly divided into five groups: normal, model, model plus simvastatin (5 mg/kg d·body weight), and model plus low-dose and high-dose EEBM groups (105 and 210 mg/kg d·body weight, respectively). Serum levels of the inflammatory factors were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The mRNA and protein expression of PPARγ and CD36 in atherosclerotic rats' liver tissue and thoracic aorta were determined by Q-PCR and western blot analysis, respectively. EEBM at high dose effectively attenuated the abnormally expressed AS-related inflammatory factors of TNF-α, IL-6, MMP-9, and CRP in atherosclerotic rats by 41.5%, 66.1%, 77.5%, and 79.5%, respectively. After treatment with high dose EEBM, the elevated-expressions of PPARγ and CD36 at the mRNA and protein levels in atherosclerotic rats were found to be obviously downregulated at both levels. These results demonstrate that EEBM might lessen the AS-related inflammatory reaction, and then inhibit the formation of ox-LDL, consequently downregulating the expression of PPARγ and CD36 at the mRNA and protein levels, thus reducing macrophage-foam-cell formation and prohibiting the development of atherosclerotic plaque through the ox-LDL-PPARγ-CD36 feed-forward cycle, which can effectively prevent the occurrence and development of AS in atherosclerotic rats.

Effect of echinalkamide identified from Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench on the inhibition of osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption

Plant cell cultures have been exploited to provide stable production and new secondary metabolites for better pharmacological activity. Fractionation of adventitious root cultures of Echinacea purpurea resulted in the isolation of eleven constituents, including three new compounds. The structures of the three new compounds were determined to be an alkylamide (1), a polyacetylene (2) and a lignan (3) on the basis of combined spectroscopic analysis. To discover new types of antiresorptive agents, we screened for new compounds that regulate osteoclast differentiation, and survival. Among three new compounds, echinalkamide (compound 1) had considerably inhibitory effects on RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation, and on proliferation of osteoclasts and efficiently attenuated osteoclastic bone resorption without toxicity. In addition, echinalamide treatment inhibited the osteoclast—specific gene expression level. Echinalkamide achieved this inhibitory effect by disturbing phosphorylation of MAPK and activation of osteoclast transcription factors c-Fos and NFATc1. Conclusionally, our study investigated that echinalkamide remarkably inhibited osteoclast differentiation and osteoclast specific gene expression through repression of the MAPK–c-Fos–NFATC1 cascade.

Study on the extraction, purification, partial chemical characterization and anti-alcohol liver injury activity of Mori Fructus polysaccharides

Mori Fructus (MF) is a fruit rich in many nutrients.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of High Hydrostatic Pressure Extract of Mulberry (Morus alba) Fruit on LPS-Stimulated RAW264.7 Cells

Mulberry fruit (Morus alba L.) contains abundant bioactive compounds, including anthocyanins and flavonols, and has been reported to possess potent beneficial properties including anticancer, antidiabetic, and anti-oxidant effects. High hydrostatic pressure (HHP) processing, a nonthermal food processing technology, is suitable for the extraction of bioactive compounds from plants. Nevertheless, the anti-inflammatory effects of HHP extract of mulberry fruit (HM) in RAW264.7 cells remain unclear. The present study aimed to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of HM on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation in vitro. RAW264.7 cells were treated with various concentrations (0.1-1 μg/mL) of HM in the presence or absence of LPS. HM inhibited the inflammatory mediator, nitric oxide (NO) release, and mRNA expression of nitric oxide synthase 2 (NOS2) in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. In addition, HM suppressed both mRNA and protein expressions of prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTGS2). Moreover, it reduced the LPS-induced secretion of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. These results revealed that HM exerts anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting several mediators and cytokines involved in the inflammatory process.

Activation of macrophage mediated host defense against Salmonella typhimurium by Morus alba L

Background

The innate immune system plays a crucial role in the initiation and subsequent direction of adaptive immune responses, as well as in the removal of pathogens that have been targeted by an adaptive immune response.

Objective

Morus alba L. was reported to have immunostimulatory properties that might protect against infectious diseases. However, this possibility has not yet been explored. The present study investigated the protective and immune-enhancing ability of M. alba L. against infectious disease and the mechanisms involved.

Design

To investigate the immune-enhancing effects of M. alba L., we used a bacterial infection model.

Results and discussions

The lifespan of mice infected with a lethal dose of Salmonella typhimurium (1 × 10⁷ colony forming units – CFU) was significantly extended when they were administered M. alba L. Furthermore, M. alba L. activated macrophages, monocytes, and neutrophils and induced Th1 cytokines (IL-12, IFN-γ, TNF-α) in mice infected with a sublethal dose (1 × 10⁵ CFU) of S. typhimurium. M. alba L. significantly stimulated the uptake of bacteria into peritoneal macrophages as indicated by increased phagocytosis. Peritoneal macrophages derived from C3H/HeJ mice significantly inhibited M. alba L. induced NO production and TNF-α secretion compared with peritoneal macrophages derived from C3H/HeN mice.

Conclusions

These results suggest that the innate immune activity of M. alba L. against bacterial infection in mice occurs through activation of the TLR4 signaling pathway.

An immunological perspective for preventing cancer with berries

Berries and their phytochemicals have well documented chemopreventive roles, but understanding their ability to regulate cancer immunology is only beginning to be explored. The literature, including human studies, suggests that berry components can modulate our immune system to delay cancer development. Moreover, their wide spectrum of phytochemicals suggests that they might influence the functions of multiple immune cells and different aspects of cancer immunity. Cancer immune-therapies are showing promise for some types of cancer because they boost T cells' ability to recognize tumor cells - an essential prelude to destruction. Recognition occurs after dendritic cells present antigen, such as tumor antigen, to T cells, generating an adaptive response. Therefore, the potential of berries to aid cancer immune-therapies by, for example, regulating dendritic cells, warrants further investigation in animal and human studies. More information is also needed about berries' effects on the entire spectrum of immunity so that a comprehensive view can inform efforts to use berries to enhance immune responses during cancer prevention and treatment. This review summarizes the effects of berries as anti-tumor agents from the immunological perspective in tumor-bearing animals and humans.

The Mulberry (Morus alba L.) Fruit-A Review of Characteristic Components and Health Benefits

Mulberry (Morus alba L.) fruit has a high yield in one fruiting season in many countries, especially in Asia, and a long history of use as an edible fruit and traditional medicine. A great diversity of nutritive compounds such as fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds, including anthocyanins, rutin, quercetin, chlorogenic acid, and polysaccharides have been found in mulberry fruit depending on the cultivars and maturity stages. Furthermore, the extracts and active components of mulberry fruit have demonstrated numerous biological activities, including antioxidant, neuroprotective, antiatherosclerosis, immunomodulative, antitumor, antihyperglycemic, and hypolipidemic activities in in vitro and in vivo studies, and they have received increasing interest from researchers and pharmaceutical companies. Although some mechanistic studies further substantiate these potential health benefits of mulberry fruit, a need exists to make a better understanding of the roles of these compounds in traditional medicine and the diet. This review provides recent findings regarding the chemical constituents and biological activities of mulberry fruit, which may be useful for stimulating deep research of mulberry fruit and for predicting their uses as important and safe contributors to benefit human health.

Fraxin Prevents Chemically Induced Hepatotoxicity by Reducing Oxidative Stress

Fraxin isolated from Acer tegmentosum is reported to exert potent anti-oxidative stress action. However, pharmacological activities of fraxin remain to be elucidated. This study investigated the potential hepatoprotective effects of fraxin and the underlying signaling mechanism involved. Treatment with fraxin significantly lowered the serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) in a CCl₄-induced hepatotoxicity rat model. In the fraxin-treated group, glutathione (GSH) significantly increased, while the malondialdehyde (MDA) in the liver significantly decreased. Fraxin also showed radical-scavenging activity. Furthermore, it significantly reduced the t-BHP-induced cytotoxicity and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in Hep G2. Fraxin protected Hep G2 cells through Nrf2 pathway-dependent HO-1 expression. The results of this study indicate that fraxin shows potent hepatoprotective effects in vitro and in vivo, presumably through direct antioxidant activity and the Nrf2-mediated antioxidant enzyme system.

Follistatin-like protein 1 contributes to dendritic cell and T-lymphocyte activation in nasopharyngeal carcinoma patients by altering nuclear factor κb and Jun N-terminal kinase expression

Follistatin‐like protein 1 (FSTL1) is a newly characterized protein that can regulate the immune response in various ways. Dendritic cells (DCs) are central to immune regulation. In this study, we explored the impact of FSTL1 on DC activity in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) patients. The surface expression of CD40, CD86, and HLA‐DR on DCs was analyzed and showed significantly elevated expression levels, indicating DC maturity. After FSTL1 was added to DCs collected from NPC patients (n = 50), controls (n = 47), and healthy donors (n = 10), interferon γ secretion and T‐cell receptor expression in cytotoxic T lymphocytes were also investigated. In the experimental groups, the expression of the critical immune protein nuclear factor (NF)‐κb was upregulated, whereas Jun N‐terminal kinase (JNK) was downregulated. Our findings demonstrate that FSTL1 plays a critical role in immune regulation, enhancing the antigen presentation ability of DCs by up‐regulating NF‐κb expression and down‐regulating JNK expression.

Nonclinical Safety Assessment of Morus alba L. Fruits: Study of 90-D Toxicity in Sprague Dawley Rats and Genotoxicity in Salmonella

Morus alba L. is a traditional herb with a long history of consumption, both as an edible fruit and as medicine. However, its safety evaluation has not yet been established. The objective of this study was to evaluate subchronic oral toxicity and genotoxicity of M. alba L. fruits (MFE). The subchronic toxicity after daily oral administration of MFE at 0, 40, 200, and 1000 mg/kg for 90 d was examined in Sprague Dawley (SD) rats. MFE administration did not lead to death, adverse effects, change in food and water consumption, and body weight gain. Significant toxic effects were not found within the parameters of organ weight, biochemical values, and hematological and urine analysis between the control and the MFE group. The genotoxicity of MFE was assayed by Ames test in Salmonella typhimurium strains TA98, TA102, and TA1535. No genotoxicity was found in all the tested strains. Thus in this study, a no-observed-adverse-effect level for MFE in 90 d repeated oral toxicity study in rats was determined to be greater than 1000 mg/kg regardless of gender. The results also suggested that MFE does not have a genotoxicity potential.