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Isebia KT, Lolkema MP, Jenster G, de Wit R, Martens JWM, van Riet J. A Compendium of AR Splice Variants in Metastatic Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24066009. [PMID: 36983083 PMCID: PMC10053078 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24066009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Treatment-induced AR alterations, including AR alternative splice variants (AR-Vs), have been extensively linked to harboring roles in primary and acquired resistance to conventional and next-generation hormonal therapies in prostate cancer and therefore have gained momentum. Our aim was to uniformly determine recurrent AR-Vs in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC) using whole transcriptome sequencing in order to assess which AR-Vs might hold potential diagnostic or prognostic relevance in future research. This study reports that in addition to the promising AR-V7 as a biomarker, AR45 and AR-V3 were also seen as recurrent AR-Vs and that the presence of any AR-V could be associated with higher AR expression. With future research, these AR-Vs may therefore harbor similar or complementary roles to AR-V7 as predictive and prognostic biomarkers in mCRPC or as proxies for abundant AR expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khrystany T Isebia
- Department of Medical Oncology and Cancer Genomics Netherlands, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Martijn P Lolkema
- Department of Medical Oncology and Cancer Genomics Netherlands, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Guido Jenster
- Department of Medical Oncology and Cancer Genomics Netherlands, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ronald de Wit
- Department of Medical Oncology and Cancer Genomics Netherlands, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - John W M Martens
- Department of Medical Oncology and Cancer Genomics Netherlands, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Job van Riet
- Department of Medical Oncology and Cancer Genomics Netherlands, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Division of AI in Oncology, German Cancer Research Centre DKFZ, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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2
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Lin Y, Tan H, Yu G, Zhan M, Xu B. Molecular Mechanisms of Noncoding RNA in the Occurrence of Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24021305. [PMID: 36674820 PMCID: PMC9860629 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24021305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 12/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Although several therapeutic options have been shown to improve survival of most patients with prostate cancer, progression to castration-refractory state continues to present challenges in clinics and scientific research. As a highly heterogeneous disease entity, the mechanisms of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) are complicated and arise from multiple factors. Among them, noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), the untranslated part of the human transcriptome, are closely related to almost all biological regulation, including tumor metabolisms, epigenetic modifications and immune escape, which has encouraged scientists to investigate their role in CRPC. In clinical practice, ncRNAs, especially miRNAs and lncRNAs, may function as potential biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis of CRPC. Therefore, understanding the molecular biology of CRPC will help boost a shift in the treatment of CRPC patients. In this review, we summarize the recent findings of miRNAs and lncRNAs, discuss their potential functional mechanisms and highlight their clinical application prospects in CRPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Lin
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Haisong Tan
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Guopeng Yu
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Ming Zhan
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200011, China
- The Core Laboratory in Medical Center of Clinical Research, Department of Molecular Diagnostics & Endocrinology, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200011, China
- Correspondence: (M.Z.); (B.X.)
| | - Bin Xu
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200011, China
- Correspondence: (M.Z.); (B.X.)
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3
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Gahete MD, Herman-Sanchez N, Fuentes-Fayos AC, Lopez-Canovas JL, Luque RM. Dysregulation of splicing variants and spliceosome components in breast cancer. Endocr Relat Cancer 2022; 29:R123-R142. [PMID: 35728261 DOI: 10.1530/erc-22-0019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The dysregulation of the splicing process has emerged as a novel hallmark of metabolic and tumor pathologies. In breast cancer (BCa), which represents the most diagnosed cancer type among women worldwide, the generation and/or dysregulation of several oncogenic splicing variants have been described. This is the case of the splicing variants of HER2, ER, BRCA1, or the recently identified by our group, In1-ghrelin and SST5TMD4, which exhibit oncogenic roles, increasing the malignancy, poor prognosis, and resistance to treatment of BCa. This altered expression of oncogenic splicing variants has been closely linked with the dysregulation of the elements belonging to the macromolecular machinery that controls the splicing process (spliceosome components and the associated splicing factors). In this review, we compile the current knowledge demonstrating the altered expression of splicing variants and spliceosomal components in BCa, showing the existence of a growing body of evidence supporting the close implication of the alteration in the splicing process in mammary tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel D Gahete
- Maimónides Institute of Biomedical Research of Córdoba (IMIBIC), Córdoba, Spain
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
- Reina Sofía University Hospital, Córdoba, Spain
- CIBER Pathophysiology of Obesity and Nutrition (CIBERobn), Córdoba, Spain
| | - Natalia Herman-Sanchez
- Maimónides Institute of Biomedical Research of Córdoba (IMIBIC), Córdoba, Spain
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
- Reina Sofía University Hospital, Córdoba, Spain
- CIBER Pathophysiology of Obesity and Nutrition (CIBERobn), Córdoba, Spain
| | - Antonio C Fuentes-Fayos
- Maimónides Institute of Biomedical Research of Córdoba (IMIBIC), Córdoba, Spain
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
- Reina Sofía University Hospital, Córdoba, Spain
- CIBER Pathophysiology of Obesity and Nutrition (CIBERobn), Córdoba, Spain
| | - Juan L Lopez-Canovas
- Maimónides Institute of Biomedical Research of Córdoba (IMIBIC), Córdoba, Spain
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
- Reina Sofía University Hospital, Córdoba, Spain
- CIBER Pathophysiology of Obesity and Nutrition (CIBERobn), Córdoba, Spain
| | - Raúl M Luque
- Maimónides Institute of Biomedical Research of Córdoba (IMIBIC), Córdoba, Spain
- Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, University of Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
- Reina Sofía University Hospital, Córdoba, Spain
- CIBER Pathophysiology of Obesity and Nutrition (CIBERobn), Córdoba, Spain
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4
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Obinata D, Lawrence MG, Takayama K, Choo N, Risbridger GP, Takahashi S, Inoue S. Recent Discoveries in the Androgen Receptor Pathway in Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer. Front Oncol 2020; 10:581515. [PMID: 33134178 PMCID: PMC7578370 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.581515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) is the main therapeutic target in advanced prostate cancer, because it regulates the growth and progression of prostate cancer cells. Patients may undergo multiple lines of AR-directed treatments, including androgen-deprivation therapy, AR signaling inhibitors (abiraterone acetate, enzalutamide, apalutamide, or darolutamide), or combinations of these therapies. Yet, tumors inevitably develop resistance to the successive lines of treatment. The diverse mechanisms of resistance include reactivation of the AR and dysregulation of AR cofactors and collaborative transcription factors (TFs). Further elucidating the nexus between the AR and collaborative TFs may reveal new strategies targeting the AR directly or indirectly, such as targeting BET proteins or OCT1. However, appropriate preclinical models will be required to test the efficacy of these approaches. Fortunately, an increasing variety of patient-derived models, such as xenografts and organoids, are being developed for discovery-based research and preclinical drug screening. Here we review the mechanisms of drug resistance in the AR signaling pathway, the intersection with collaborative TFs, and the use of patient-derived models for novel drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Obinata
- Department of Urology, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute Cancer Program, Prostate Cancer Research Group, Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Mitchell G. Lawrence
- Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute Cancer Program, Prostate Cancer Research Group, Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
- Cancer Research Division, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Kenichi Takayama
- Department of Systems Aging Science and Medicine, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nicholas Choo
- Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute Cancer Program, Prostate Cancer Research Group, Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Gail P. Risbridger
- Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute Cancer Program, Prostate Cancer Research Group, Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
- Cancer Research Division, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Satoru Takahashi
- Department of Urology, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Satoshi Inoue
- Department of Systems Aging Science and Medicine, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology, Tokyo, Japan
- Research Center for Genomic Medicine, Saitama Medical University, Saitama, Japan
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5
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Ye J, Lin Y, Wang Q, Li Y, Zhao Y, Chen L, Wu Q, Xu C, Zhou C, Sun Y, Ye W, Bai F, Zhou T. Integrated Multichip Analysis Identifies Potential Key Genes in the Pathogenesis of Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2020; 11:601745. [PMID: 33324350 PMCID: PMC7726207 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2020.601745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is rapidly becoming a major chronic liver disease worldwide. However, little is known concerning the pathogenesis and progression mechanism of NASH. Our aim here is to identify key genes and elucidate their biological function in the progression from hepatic steatosis to NASH. METHODS Gene expression datasets containing NASH patients, hepatic steatosis patients, and healthy subjects were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus database, using the R packages biobase and GEOquery. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified using the R limma package. Functional annotation and enrichment analysis of DEGs were undertaken using the R package ClusterProfile. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks were constructed using the STRING database. RESULTS Three microarray datasets GSE48452, GSE63067 and GSE89632 were selected. They included 45 NASH patients, 31 hepatic steatosis patients, and 43 healthy subjects. Two up-regulated and 24 down-regulated DEGs were found in both NASH patients vs. healthy controls and in steatosis subjects vs. healthy controls. The most significantly differentially expressed genes were FOSB (P = 3.43×10-15), followed by CYP7A1 (P = 2.87×10-11), and FOS (P = 6.26×10-11). Proximal promoter DNA-binding transcription activator activity, RNA polymerase II-specific (P = 1.30×10-5) was the most significantly enriched functional term in the gene ontology analysis. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis indicated that the MAPK signaling pathway (P = 3.11×10-4) was significantly enriched. CONCLUSION This study characterized hub genes of the liver transcriptome, which may contribute functionally to NASH progression from hepatic steatosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianzhong Ye
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yishuai Lin
- School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Qing Wang
- Collaborative Innovation Center for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yating Li
- Collaborative Innovation Center for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yajie Zhao
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Lijiang Chen
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Qing Wu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Chunquan Xu
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Cui Zhou
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yao Sun
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Wanchun Ye
- Department of Chemotherapy 2, Wenzhou Central Hospital, Wenzhou, China
| | - Fumao Bai
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Fumao Bai, ; Tieli Zhou,
| | - Tieli Zhou
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Fumao Bai, ; Tieli Zhou,
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6
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Gu Y, Chow MJ, Kapoor A, Mei W, Jiang Y, Yan J, De Melo J, Seliman M, Yang H, Cutz JC, Bonert M, Major P, Tang D. Biphasic Alteration of Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) During Prostate Cancer Development. Transl Oncol 2018; 11:1012-1022. [PMID: 29966864 PMCID: PMC6031255 DOI: 10.1016/j.tranon.2018.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2018] [Revised: 05/31/2018] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) is a plasma enzyme that hydrolyzes ghrelin and bioactive esters, suggesting a role in modulating metabolism. Serum BChE is reduced in cancer patients. In prostate cancer (PC), the down-regulation is associated with disease recurrence. Nonetheless, how BChE is expressed in PC and its impact on PC remain unclear. We report here the biphasic changes of BChE expression in PC. In vitro, BChE expression was decreased in more tumorigenic PC stem-like cells (PCSLCs), DU145, and PC3 cells compared to less tumorigenic non-stem PCs and LNCaP cells. On the other hand, BChE was expressed at a higher level in LNCaP cells than immortalized but non-tumorigenic prostate epithelial BPH-1 cells. In vivo, BChE expression was up-regulated in DU145 xenografts compared to LNCaP xenografts; DU145 cell-derived lung metastases displayed comparable levels of BChE as subcutaneous tumors. Furthermore, LNCaP xenografts produced in castrated mice exhibited a significant increase of BChE expression compared to xenografts generated in intact mice. In patients, BChE expression was down-regulated in PCs (n = 340) compared to prostate tissues (n = 86). In two independent PC populations MSKCC (n = 130) and TCGA Provisional (n = 490), BChE mRNA levels were reduced from World Health Organization grade group 1 (WHOGG 1) PCs to WHOGG 3 PCs, followed by a significant increase in WHOGG 5 PCs. The up-regulation was associated with a reduction in disease-free survival (P = .008). Collectively, we demonstrated for the first time a biphasic alteration of BChE, its down-regulation at early stage of PC and its up-regulation at advanced PC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Gu
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; the Research Institute of St Joe's Hamilton, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; the Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mathilda Jing Chow
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; the Research Institute of St Joe's Hamilton, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; the Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Anil Kapoor
- the Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; Department of Surgery, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Wenjuan Mei
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; the Research Institute of St Joe's Hamilton, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; the Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; Department of Nephrology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Jiangxi, China
| | - Yanzhi Jiang
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; the Research Institute of St Joe's Hamilton, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; the Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; Department of Gastroenterology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Judy Yan
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; the Research Institute of St Joe's Hamilton, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; the Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jason De Melo
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; the Research Institute of St Joe's Hamilton, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; the Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Maryam Seliman
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; the Research Institute of St Joe's Hamilton, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; the Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; School of Medicine, the National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - Huixiang Yang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Jean-Claude Cutz
- Division of Anatomical Pathology, Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Michael Bonert
- Division of Anatomical Pathology, Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Pierre Major
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Oncology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Damu Tang
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; the Research Institute of St Joe's Hamilton, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada; the Hamilton Center for Kidney Research, St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
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7
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Uo T, Plymate SR, Sprenger CC. Allosteric alterations in the androgen receptor and activity in prostate cancer. Endocr Relat Cancer 2017; 24:R335-R348. [PMID: 28808043 PMCID: PMC6812555 DOI: 10.1530/erc-17-0108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Organisms have evolved to generate biological complexity in their proteome and transcriptome from a limited number of genes. This concept holds true for the androgen receptor, which displays a diversity of inclusion/exclusion events in its structural motifs as a mechanism of resistance to the most forefront anti-androgen therapies. More than 20 androgen receptor variants that lack various portions of ligand-binding domain have been identified in human prostate cancer (PCa) samples. Most of the variants are inactive on their own, with a few exceptions displaying constitutive activity. The full-length receptor and one or more variants can be co-expressed in the same cell under many circumstances, which raises the question of how these variants physically and functionally interact with the full-length receptor or one another in the course of PCa progression. To address this issue, in this review, we will characterize and discuss androgen receptor variants, including the novel variants discovered in the last couple of years (i) individually, (ii) with respect to their physical and functional interaction with one another and (iii) in clinical relevance. Here, we also introduce the very recent understanding of AR-Vs obtained through successful development of some AR-V-specific antibodies as well as identification of novel AR-Vs by data mining approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuma Uo
- Department of MedicineUniversity of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Stephen R Plymate
- Department of MedicineUniversity of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Geriatrics Research Education and Clinical CenterVA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Cynthia C Sprenger
- Department of MedicineUniversity of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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