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Ercilla-Rodríguez P, Sánchez-Díez M, Alegría-Aravena N, Quiroz-Troncoso J, Gavira-O'Neill CE, González-Martos R, Ramírez-Castillejo C. CAR-T lymphocyte-based cell therapies; mechanistic substantiation, applications and biosafety enhancement with suicide genes: new opportunities to melt side effects. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1333150. [PMID: 39091493 PMCID: PMC11291200 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1333150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 08/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy has made significant strides in cancer treatment with strategies like checkpoint blockade antibodies and adoptive T cell transfer. Chimeric antigen receptor T cells (CAR-T) have emerged as a promising approach to combine these strategies and overcome their limitations. This review explores CAR-T cells as a living drug for cancer treatment. CAR-T cells are genetically engineered immune cells designed to target and eliminate tumor cells by recognizing specific antigens. The study involves a comprehensive literature review on CAR-T cell technology, covering structure optimization, generations, manufacturing processes, and gene therapy strategies. It examines CAR-T therapy in haematologic cancers and solid tumors, highlighting challenges and proposing a suicide gene-based mechanism to enhance safety. The results show significant advancements in CAR-T technology, particularly in structure optimization and generation. The manufacturing process has improved for broader clinical application. However, a series of inherent challenges and side effects still need to be addressed. In conclusion, CAR-T cells hold great promise for cancer treatment, but ongoing research is crucial to improve efficacy and safety for oncology patients. The proposed suicide gene-based mechanism offers a potential solution to mitigate side effects including cytokine release syndrome (the most common toxic side effect of CAR-T therapy) and the associated neurotoxicity.
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MESH Headings
- Humans
- Immunotherapy, Adoptive/adverse effects
- Immunotherapy, Adoptive/methods
- Receptors, Chimeric Antigen/genetics
- Receptors, Chimeric Antigen/immunology
- Genes, Transgenic, Suicide
- Neoplasms/therapy
- Neoplasms/immunology
- Neoplasms/genetics
- T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Animals
- Genetic Therapy/adverse effects
- Genetic Therapy/methods
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/genetics
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marta Sánchez-Díez
- ETSIAAB, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Laboratorio Cancer Stem Cell, HST group, Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Nicolás Alegría-Aravena
- Grupo de Biología y Producción de Cérvidos, Instituto de Desarrollo Regional, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Albacete, Spain
- Asociación Española Contra el Cáncer (AECC)-Fundación Científica AECC, Albacete, Spain
| | - Josefa Quiroz-Troncoso
- ETSIAAB, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Laboratorio Cancer Stem Cell, HST group, Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Clara E. Gavira-O'Neill
- Laboratorio Cancer Stem Cell, HST group, Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Sección de Oncología, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria San Carlos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Raquel González-Martos
- ETSIAAB, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Laboratorio Cancer Stem Cell, HST group, Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen Ramírez-Castillejo
- ETSIAAB, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Laboratorio Cancer Stem Cell, HST group, Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Sección de Oncología, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria San Carlos, Madrid, Spain
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2
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Netsrithong R, Garcia-Perez L, Themeli M. Engineered T cells from induced pluripotent stem cells: from research towards clinical implementation. Front Immunol 2024; 14:1325209. [PMID: 38283344 PMCID: PMC10811463 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1325209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived T (iT) cells represent a groundbreaking frontier in adoptive cell therapies with engineered T cells, poised to overcome pivotal limitations associated with conventional manufacturing methods. iPSCs offer an off-the-shelf source of therapeutic T cells with the potential for infinite expansion and straightforward genetic manipulation to ensure hypo-immunogenicity and introduce specific therapeutic functions, such as antigen specificity through a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR). Importantly, genetic engineering of iPSC offers the benefit of generating fully modified clonal lines that are amenable to rigorous safety assessments. Critical to harnessing the potential of iT cells is the development of a robust and clinically compatible production process. Current protocols for genetic engineering as well as differentiation protocols designed to mirror human hematopoiesis and T cell development, vary in efficiency and often contain non-compliant components, thereby rendering them unsuitable for clinical implementation. This comprehensive review centers on the remarkable progress made over the last decade in generating functional engineered T cells from iPSCs. Emphasis is placed on alignment with good manufacturing practice (GMP) standards, scalability, safety measures and quality controls, which constitute the fundamental prerequisites for clinical application. In conclusion, the focus on iPSC as a source promises standardized, scalable, clinically relevant, and potentially safer production of engineered T cells. This groundbreaking approach holds the potential to extend hope to a broader spectrum of patients and diseases, leading in a new era in adoptive T cell therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ratchapong Netsrithong
- Department of Hematology, Amsterdam University Medical Center (UMC), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Cancer Biology and Immunology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Laura Garcia-Perez
- Department of Hematology, Amsterdam University Medical Center (UMC), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Cancer Biology and Immunology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Maria Themeli
- Department of Hematology, Amsterdam University Medical Center (UMC), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Cancer Biology and Immunology, Cancer Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Rossignoli F, Hoffman D, Atif E, Shah K. Developing and characterizing a two-layered safety switch for cell therapies. Cancer Biol Ther 2023; 24:2232146. [PMID: 37439774 PMCID: PMC10348026 DOI: 10.1080/15384047.2023.2232146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Gene edited and engineered cell-based therapies are a promising approach for treating a variety of disorders, including cancer. However, the ability of engineered cells to persist for prolonged periods along with possible toxicity raises concerns over the safety of these approaches. Although a number of different one-dimensional suicide systems have been incorporated into therapeutic cell types, the incorporation of a two-layered suicide system that allows controlled killing of therapeutic cells at different time points is needed. In this study, we engineered a variety of therapeutic cells to express two different kill switches, RapaCasp9 and HSV-TK and utilized Rapamycin and Ganciclovir respectively to activate these kill switches. We show that the function of both RapaCasp9 and HSV-TK molecules is preserved and can be activated to induce apoptosis detected early (24 h) and late (48 h) post-activation respectively, with no toxicity. In vivo, we show the eradication of a majority of cells after treatment in subcutaneous and orthotopic models. Furthermore, we demonstrate how both suicide switches work independently and can be activated sequentially for an improved killing, thus ensuring a failsafe mechanism in case the activation of a single one of them is not sufficient to eliminate the cells. Our findings highlight the reliability of the double suicide system, effective on a variety of cells with different biological characteristics, independent of their anatomic presence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippo Rossignoli
- Center for Stem Cell and Translational Immunotherapy (CSTI), Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Danielle Hoffman
- Center for Stem Cell and Translational Immunotherapy (CSTI), Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Emaan Atif
- Center for Stem Cell and Translational Immunotherapy (CSTI), Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Khalid Shah
- Center for Stem Cell and Translational Immunotherapy (CSTI), Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Boston, MA, USA
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Cuesta-Gomez N, Verhoeff K, Dadheech N, Dang T, Jasra IT, de Leon MB, Pawlick R, Marfil-Garza B, Anwar P, Razavy H, Zapata-Morin PA, Jickling G, Thiesen A, O'Gorman D, Kallos MS, Shapiro AMJ. Suspension culture improves iPSC expansion and pluripotency phenotype. Stem Cell Res Ther 2023; 14:154. [PMID: 37280707 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-023-03382-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) offer potential to revolutionize regenerative medicine as a renewable source for islets, dopaminergic neurons, retinal cells, and cardiomyocytes. However, translation of these regenerative cell therapies requires cost-efficient mass manufacturing of high-quality human iPSCs. This study presents an improved three-dimensional Vertical-Wheel® bioreactor (3D suspension) cell expansion protocol with comparison to a two-dimensional (2D planar) protocol. METHODS Sendai virus transfection of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells was used to establish mycoplasma and virus free iPSC lines without common genetic duplications or deletions. iPSCs were then expanded under 2D planar and 3D suspension culture conditions. We comparatively evaluated cell expansion capacity, genetic integrity, pluripotency phenotype, and in vitro and in vivo pluripotency potential of iPSCs. RESULTS Expansion of iPSCs using Vertical-Wheel® bioreactors achieved 93.8-fold (IQR 30.2) growth compared to 19.1 (IQR 4.0) in 2D (p < 0.0022), the largest expansion potential reported to date over 5 days. 0.5 L Vertical-Wheel® bioreactors achieved similar expansion and further reduced iPSC production cost. 3D suspension expanded cells had increased proliferation, measured as Ki67+ expression using flow cytometry (3D: 69.4% [IQR 5.5%] vs. 2D: 57.4% [IQR 10.9%], p = 0.0022), and had a higher frequency of pluripotency marker (Oct4+Nanog+Sox2+) expression (3D: 94.3 [IQR 1.4] vs. 2D: 52.5% [IQR 5.6], p = 0.0079). q-PCR genetic analysis demonstrated a lack of duplications or deletions at the 8 most commonly mutated regions within iPSC lines after long-term passaging (> 25). 2D-cultured cells displayed a primed pluripotency phenotype, which transitioned to naïve after 3D-culture. Both 2D and 3D cells were capable of trilineage differentiation and following teratoma, 2D-expanded cells generated predominantly solid teratomas, while 3D-expanded cells produced more mature and predominantly cystic teratomas with lower Ki67+ expression within teratomas (3D: 16.7% [IQR 3.2%] vs.. 2D: 45.3% [IQR 3.0%], p = 0.002) in keeping with a naïve phenotype. CONCLUSION This study demonstrates nearly 100-fold iPSC expansion over 5-days using our 3D suspension culture protocol in Vertical-Wheel® bioreactors, the largest cell growth reported to date. 3D expanded cells showed enhanced in vitro and in vivo pluripotency phenotype that may support more efficient scale-up strategies and safer clinical implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nerea Cuesta-Gomez
- Alberta Diabetes Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2T9, Canada
- Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2B7, Canada
| | - Kevin Verhoeff
- Alberta Diabetes Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2T9, Canada
- Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2B7, Canada
| | - Nidheesh Dadheech
- Alberta Diabetes Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2T9, Canada.
- Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2B7, Canada.
| | - Tiffany Dang
- Pharmaceutical Production Research Facility (PPRF), Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N1N4, Canada
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N1N4, Canada
| | - Ila Tewari Jasra
- Alberta Diabetes Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2T9, Canada
- Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2B7, Canada
| | - Mario Bermudez de Leon
- Department of Molecular Biology, Centro de Investigación Biomédica del Noreste, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, 64720, Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, Mexico
| | - Rena Pawlick
- Alberta Diabetes Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2T9, Canada
- Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2B7, Canada
| | - Braulio Marfil-Garza
- Alberta Diabetes Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2T9, Canada
- National Institute of Medical Sciences and Nutrition Salvador Zubiran, 14080, Mexico City, Mexico
- CHRISTUS-LatAm Hub - Excellence and Innovation Center, 66260, Monterrey, Mexico
| | - Perveen Anwar
- Alberta Diabetes Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2T9, Canada
- Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2B7, Canada
| | - Haide Razavy
- Alberta Diabetes Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2T9, Canada
- Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2B7, Canada
| | - Patricio Adrián Zapata-Morin
- Laboratory of Mycology and Phytopathology, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, 66451, San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Glen Jickling
- Department of Medicine, Division of Neurology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Aducio Thiesen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2B7, Canada
| | - Doug O'Gorman
- Clinical Islet Transplant Program, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2J3, Canada
| | - Michael S Kallos
- Pharmaceutical Production Research Facility (PPRF), Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N1N4, Canada
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Schulich School of Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N1N4, Canada
| | - A M James Shapiro
- Alberta Diabetes Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2T9, Canada.
- Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2B7, Canada.
- Clinical Islet Transplant Program, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2J3, Canada.
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5
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Nikolouli E, Reichstein J, Hansen G, Lachmann N. In vitro systems to study inborn errors of immunity using human induced pluripotent stem cells. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1024935. [DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1024935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last two decades, the exponential progress in the field of genetics could reveal the genetic impact on the onset and progression of several diseases affecting the immune system. This knowledge has led to the discovery of more than 400 monogenic germline mutations, also known as “inborn errors of immunity (IEI)”. Given the rarity of various IEI and the clinical diversity as well as the limited available patients’ material, the continuous development of novel cell-based in vitro models to elucidate the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of these diseases is imperative. Focusing on stem cell technologies, this review aims to provide an overview of the current available in vitro models used to study IEI and which could lay the foundation for new therapeutic approaches. We elaborate in particular on the use of induced pluripotent stem cell-based systems and their broad application in studying IEI by establishing also novel infection culture models. The review will critically discuss the current limitations or gaps in the field of stem cell technology as well as the future perspectives from the use of these cell culture systems.
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Zhong C, Liu M, Pan X, Zhu H. Tumorigenicity Risk of iPSCs in vivo: Nip it in the Bud. PRECISION CLINICAL MEDICINE 2022; 5:pbac004. [PMID: 35692443 PMCID: PMC9026204 DOI: 10.1093/pcmedi/pbac004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2006, Takahashi and Yamanaka first created induced pluripotent stem cells from mouse fibroblasts via the retroviral introduction of genes encoding the transcription factors Oct3/4, Sox2, Klf44, and c-Myc. Since then, the future clinical application of somatic cell reprogramming technology has become an attractive research topic in the field of regenerative medicine. Of note, considerable interest has been placed in circumventing ethical issues linked to embryonic stem cell research. However, tumorigenicity, immunogenicity, and heterogeneity may hamper attempts to deploy this technology therapeutically. This review highlights the progress aimed at reducing induced pluripotent stem cells tumorigenicity risk and how to assess the safety of induced pluripotent stem cells cell therapy products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaoliang Zhong
- Department of Cell Biology, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Miao Liu
- Department of Cell Biology, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xinghua Pan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, and Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Single Cell Technology and Application, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
- Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen 518032, Guangdong, China
| | - Haiying Zhu
- Department of Cell Biology, Naval Medical University, Shanghai, China
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Millman JR, Tan JH, Colton CK. Mouse Pluripotent Stem Cell Differentiation Under Physiological Oxygen Reduces Residual Teratomas. Cell Mol Bioeng 2021; 14:555-567. [PMID: 34900010 DOI: 10.1007/s12195-021-00687-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Residual pluripotent stem cells (PSC) within differentiated populations are problematic because of their potential to form tumors. Simple methods to reduce their occurrence are needed. Methods Here, we demonstrate that control of the oxygen partial pressure (pO2) to physiological levels typical of the developing embryo, enabled by culture on a highly oxygen permeable substrate, reduces the fraction of PSC within and the tumorigenic potential of differentiated populations. Results Differentiation and/or extended culture at low pO2 reduced measured pluripotency markers by up to four orders of magnitude for mouse PSCs (mPSCs). Combination with cell sorting increased the reduction to as much as six orders of magnitude. Upon implantation into immunocompromised mice, mPSCs differentiated at low pO2 either did not form tumors or formed tumors at a slower rate than at high pO2. Conclusions Low pO2 culture alone or in combination with other methods is a potentially straightforward method that could be applied to future cell therapy protocols to minimize the possibility of tumor formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey R Millman
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Lipid Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130 USA
| | - Jit Hin Tan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
| | - Clark K Colton
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
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Myogenic Differentiation of iPS Cells Shows Different Efficiency in Simultaneous Comparison of Protocols. Cells 2021; 10:cells10071671. [PMID: 34359837 PMCID: PMC8307201 DOI: 10.3390/cells10071671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells constitute a perfect tool to study human embryo development processes such as myogenesis, thanks to their ability to differentiate into three germ layers. Currently, many protocols to obtain myogenic cells have been described in the literature. They differ in many aspects, such as media components, including signaling modulators, feeder layer constituents, and duration of culture. In our study, we compared three different myogenic differentiation protocols to verify, side by side, their efficiency. Protocol I was based on embryonic bodies differentiation induction, ITS addition, and selection with adhesion to collagen I type. Protocol II was based on strong myogenic induction at the embryonic bodies step with BIO, forskolin, and bFGF, whereas cells in Protocol III were cultured in monolayers in three special media, leading to WNT activation and TGF-β and BMP signaling inhibition. Myogenic induction was confirmed by the hierarchical expression of myogenic regulatory factors MYF5, MYOD, MYF6 and MYOG, as well as the expression of myotubes markers MYH3 and MYH2, in each protocol. Our results revealed that Protocol III is the most efficient in obtaining myogenic cells. Furthermore, our results indicated that CD56 is not a specific marker for the evaluation of myogenic differentiation.
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Efficient Genetic Safety Switches for Future Application of iPSC-Derived Cell Transplants. J Pers Med 2021; 11:jpm11060565. [PMID: 34204193 PMCID: PMC8234706 DOI: 10.3390/jpm11060565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived cell products hold great promise as a potential cell source in personalized medicine. As concerns about the potential risk of graft-related severe adverse events, such as tumor formation from residual pluripotent cells, currently restrict their applicability, we established an optimized tool for therapeutic intervention that allows drug-controlled, specific and selective ablation of either iPSCs or the whole graft through genetic safety switches. To identify the best working system, different tools for genetic iPSC modification, promoters to express safety switches and different safety switches were combined. Suicide effects were slightly stronger when the suicide gene was delivered through lentiviral (LV) vectors compared to integration into the AAVS1 locus through TALEN technology. An optimized HSV-thymidine kinase and the inducible Caspase 9 both mediated drug-induced, efficient in vitro elimination of transgene-positive iPSCs. Choice of promoter allowed selective elimination of distinct populations within the graft: the hOct4 short response element restricted transgene expression to iPSCs, while the CAGs promoter ubiquitously drove expression in iPSCs and their progeny. Remarkably, both safety switches were able to prevent in vivo teratoma development and even effectively eliminated established teratomas formed by LV CAGs-transgenic iPSCs. These optimized tools to increase safety provide an important step towards clinical application of iPSC-derived transplants.
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Ray A, Joshi JM, Sundaravadivelu PK, Raina K, Lenka N, Kaveeshwar V, Thummer RP. An Overview on Promising Somatic Cell Sources Utilized for the Efficient Generation of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2021; 17:1954-1974. [PMID: 34100193 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-021-10200-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Human induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs) have enormous potential in understanding developmental biology, disease modeling, drug discovery, and regenerative medicine. The initial human iPSC studies used fibroblasts as a starting cell source to reprogram them; however, it has been identified to be a less appealing somatic cell source by numerous studies due to various reasons. One of the important criteria to achieve efficient reprogramming is determining an appropriate starting somatic cell type to induce pluripotency since the cellular source has a major influence on the reprogramming efficiency, kinetics, and quality of iPSCs. Therefore, numerous groups have explored various somatic cell sources to identify the promising sources for reprogramming into iPSCs with different reprogramming factor combinations. This review provides an overview of promising easily accessible somatic cell sources isolated in non-invasive or minimally invasive manner such as keratinocytes, urine cells, and peripheral blood mononuclear cells used for the generation of human iPSCs derived from healthy and diseased subjects. Notably, iPSCs generated from one of these cell types derived from the patient will offer ethical and clinical advantages. In addition, these promising somatic cell sources have the potential to efficiently generate bona fide iPSCs with improved reprogramming efficiency and faster kinetics. This knowledge will help in establishing strategies for safe and efficient reprogramming and the generation of patient-specific iPSCs from these cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnab Ray
- Laboratory for Stem Cell Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
| | - Jahnavy Madhukar Joshi
- Central Research Laboratory, SDM College of Medical Sciences and Hospital, Shri Dharmasthala Manjunatheshwara University, Dharwad, 580009, Karnataka, India
| | - Pradeep Kumar Sundaravadivelu
- Laboratory for Stem Cell Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
| | - Khyati Raina
- Laboratory for Stem Cell Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India
| | - Nibedita Lenka
- National Centre for Cell Science, S. P. Pune University Campus, Pune - 411007, Ganeshkhind, Maharashtra, India
| | - Vishwas Kaveeshwar
- Central Research Laboratory, SDM College of Medical Sciences and Hospital, Shri Dharmasthala Manjunatheshwara University, Dharwad, 580009, Karnataka, India.
| | - Rajkumar P Thummer
- Laboratory for Stem Cell Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, 781039, Assam, India.
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Kuriyama H, Fukushima S, Kimura T, Kanemaru H, Miyashita A, Okada E, Kubo Y, Nakahara S, Tokuzumi A, Nishimura Y, Kajihara I, Makino K, Aoi J, Masuguchi S, Tsukamoto H, Inozume T, Zhang R, Nakatsura T, Uemura Y, Senju S, Ihn H. Immunotherapy with 4-1BBL-Expressing iPS Cell-Derived Myeloid Lines Amplifies Antigen-Specific T Cell Infiltration in Advanced Melanoma. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:1958. [PMID: 33669419 PMCID: PMC7920470 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22041958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
We have established an immune cell therapy with immortalized induced pluripotent stem-cell-derived myeloid lines (iPS-ML). The benefits of using iPS-ML are the infinite proliferative capacity and ease of genetic modification. In this study, we introduced 4-1BBL gene to iPS-ML (iPS-ML-41BBL). The analysis of the cell-surface molecules showed that the expression of CD86 was upregulated in iPS-ML-41BBL more than that in control iPS-ML. Cytokine array analysis was performed using supernatants of the spleen cells that were cocultured with iPS-ML or iPS-ML-41BBL. Multiple cytokines that are beneficial to cancer immunotherapy were upregulated. Peritoneal injections of iPS-ML-41BBL inhibited tumor growth of peritoneally disseminated mouse melanoma and prolonged survival of mice compared to that of iPS-ML. Furthermore, the numbers of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells were significantly increased in the spleen and tumor tissues treated with epitope peptide-pulsed iPS-ML-41BBL compared to those treated with control iPS-ML. The number of CXCR6-positive T cells were increased in the tumor tissues after treatment with iPS-ML-41BBL compared to that with control iPS-ML. These results suggest that iPS-ML-41BBL could activate antigen-specific T cells and promote their infiltration into the tumor tissues. Thus, iPS-ML-41BBL may be a candidate for future immune cell therapy aiming to change immunological "cold tumor" to "hot tumor".
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Affiliation(s)
- Haruka Kuriyama
- Department of Dermatology and Plastic Surgery, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan; (H.K.); (T.K.); (H.K.); (A.M.); (E.O.); (Y.K.); (S.N.); (A.T.); (Y.N.); (I.K.); (K.M.); (J.A.); (S.M.); (H.I.)
| | - Satoshi Fukushima
- Department of Dermatology and Plastic Surgery, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan; (H.K.); (T.K.); (H.K.); (A.M.); (E.O.); (Y.K.); (S.N.); (A.T.); (Y.N.); (I.K.); (K.M.); (J.A.); (S.M.); (H.I.)
| | - Toshihiro Kimura
- Department of Dermatology and Plastic Surgery, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan; (H.K.); (T.K.); (H.K.); (A.M.); (E.O.); (Y.K.); (S.N.); (A.T.); (Y.N.); (I.K.); (K.M.); (J.A.); (S.M.); (H.I.)
| | - Hisashi Kanemaru
- Department of Dermatology and Plastic Surgery, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan; (H.K.); (T.K.); (H.K.); (A.M.); (E.O.); (Y.K.); (S.N.); (A.T.); (Y.N.); (I.K.); (K.M.); (J.A.); (S.M.); (H.I.)
| | - Azusa Miyashita
- Department of Dermatology and Plastic Surgery, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan; (H.K.); (T.K.); (H.K.); (A.M.); (E.O.); (Y.K.); (S.N.); (A.T.); (Y.N.); (I.K.); (K.M.); (J.A.); (S.M.); (H.I.)
| | - Etsuko Okada
- Department of Dermatology and Plastic Surgery, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan; (H.K.); (T.K.); (H.K.); (A.M.); (E.O.); (Y.K.); (S.N.); (A.T.); (Y.N.); (I.K.); (K.M.); (J.A.); (S.M.); (H.I.)
| | - Yosuke Kubo
- Department of Dermatology and Plastic Surgery, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan; (H.K.); (T.K.); (H.K.); (A.M.); (E.O.); (Y.K.); (S.N.); (A.T.); (Y.N.); (I.K.); (K.M.); (J.A.); (S.M.); (H.I.)
| | - Satoshi Nakahara
- Department of Dermatology and Plastic Surgery, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan; (H.K.); (T.K.); (H.K.); (A.M.); (E.O.); (Y.K.); (S.N.); (A.T.); (Y.N.); (I.K.); (K.M.); (J.A.); (S.M.); (H.I.)
| | - Aki Tokuzumi
- Department of Dermatology and Plastic Surgery, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan; (H.K.); (T.K.); (H.K.); (A.M.); (E.O.); (Y.K.); (S.N.); (A.T.); (Y.N.); (I.K.); (K.M.); (J.A.); (S.M.); (H.I.)
| | - Yuki Nishimura
- Department of Dermatology and Plastic Surgery, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan; (H.K.); (T.K.); (H.K.); (A.M.); (E.O.); (Y.K.); (S.N.); (A.T.); (Y.N.); (I.K.); (K.M.); (J.A.); (S.M.); (H.I.)
| | - Ikko Kajihara
- Department of Dermatology and Plastic Surgery, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan; (H.K.); (T.K.); (H.K.); (A.M.); (E.O.); (Y.K.); (S.N.); (A.T.); (Y.N.); (I.K.); (K.M.); (J.A.); (S.M.); (H.I.)
| | - Katsunari Makino
- Department of Dermatology and Plastic Surgery, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan; (H.K.); (T.K.); (H.K.); (A.M.); (E.O.); (Y.K.); (S.N.); (A.T.); (Y.N.); (I.K.); (K.M.); (J.A.); (S.M.); (H.I.)
| | - Jun Aoi
- Department of Dermatology and Plastic Surgery, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan; (H.K.); (T.K.); (H.K.); (A.M.); (E.O.); (Y.K.); (S.N.); (A.T.); (Y.N.); (I.K.); (K.M.); (J.A.); (S.M.); (H.I.)
| | - Shinichi Masuguchi
- Department of Dermatology and Plastic Surgery, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan; (H.K.); (T.K.); (H.K.); (A.M.); (E.O.); (Y.K.); (S.N.); (A.T.); (Y.N.); (I.K.); (K.M.); (J.A.); (S.M.); (H.I.)
| | - Hirotake Tsukamoto
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan;
| | - Takashi Inozume
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba 260-8677, Japan;
| | - Rong Zhang
- Division of Cancer Immunotherapy, Exploratory Oncology Research & Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center (NCC), Kashiwa 277-8577, Japan; (R.Z.); (T.N.); (Y.U.)
| | - Tetsuya Nakatsura
- Division of Cancer Immunotherapy, Exploratory Oncology Research & Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center (NCC), Kashiwa 277-8577, Japan; (R.Z.); (T.N.); (Y.U.)
| | - Yasushi Uemura
- Division of Cancer Immunotherapy, Exploratory Oncology Research & Clinical Trial Center, National Cancer Center (NCC), Kashiwa 277-8577, Japan; (R.Z.); (T.N.); (Y.U.)
| | - Satoru Senju
- Department of Immunogenetics, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan;
| | - Hironobu Ihn
- Department of Dermatology and Plastic Surgery, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8556, Japan; (H.K.); (T.K.); (H.K.); (A.M.); (E.O.); (Y.K.); (S.N.); (A.T.); (Y.N.); (I.K.); (K.M.); (J.A.); (S.M.); (H.I.)
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12
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Tejchman A, Znój A, Chlebanowska P, Frączek-Szczypta A, Majka M. Carbon Fibers as a New Type of Scaffold for Midbrain Organoid Development. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E5959. [PMID: 32825046 PMCID: PMC7504539 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21175959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The combination of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology and 3D cell culture creates a unique possibility for the generation of organoids that mimic human organs in in vitro cultures. The use of iPS cells in organoid cultures enables the differentiation of cells into dopaminergic neurons, also found in the human midbrain. However, long-lasting organoid cultures often cause necrosis within organoids. In this work, we present carbon fibers (CFs) for medical use as a new type of scaffold for organoid culture, comparing them to a previously tested copolymer poly-(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) scaffold. We verified the physicochemical properties of CF scaffolds compared to PLGA in improving the efficiency of iPSC differentiation within organoids. The physicochemical properties of carbon scaffolds such as porosity, microstructure, or stability in the cellular environment make them a convenient material for creating in vitro organoid models. Through screening several genes expressed during the differentiation of organoids at crucial brain stages of development, we found that there is a correlation between PITX3, one of the key regulators of terminal differentiation, and the survival of midbrain dopaminergic (mDA) neurons and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) gene expression. This makes organoids formed on carbon scaffolds an improved model containing mDA neurons convenient for studying midbrain-associated neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Tejchman
- Department of Transplantation, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Pediatrics, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Wielicka 265, 30-663 Kraków, Poland; (A.T.); (P.C.)
| | - Agnieszka Znój
- Department of Biomaterials and Composites, Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, AGH University of Science and Technology, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Kraków, Poland; (A.Z.); (A.F.-S.)
| | - Paula Chlebanowska
- Department of Transplantation, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Pediatrics, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Wielicka 265, 30-663 Kraków, Poland; (A.T.); (P.C.)
| | - Aneta Frączek-Szczypta
- Department of Biomaterials and Composites, Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, AGH University of Science and Technology, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Kraków, Poland; (A.Z.); (A.F.-S.)
| | - Marcin Majka
- Department of Transplantation, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Pediatrics, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Wielicka 265, 30-663 Kraków, Poland; (A.T.); (P.C.)
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13
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Chlebanowska P, Sułkowski M, Skrzypek K, Tejchman A, Muszyńska A, Noroozi R, Majka M. Origin of the Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Affects Their Differentiation into Dopaminergic Neurons. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21165705. [PMID: 32784894 PMCID: PMC7460973 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21165705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuronal differentiation of human induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, both in 2D models and 3D systems in vitro, allows for the study of disease pathomechanisms and the development of novel therapies. To verify if the origin of donor cells used for reprogramming to iPS cells can influence the differentiation abilities of iPS cells, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and keratinocytes were reprogrammed to iPS cells using the Sendai viral vector and were subsequently checked for pluripotency markers and the ability to form teratomas in vivo. Then, iPS cells were differentiated into dopaminergic neurons in 2D and 3D cultures. Both PBMC and keratinocyte-derived iPS cells were similarly reprogrammed to iPS cells, but they displayed differences in gene expression profiles and in teratoma compositions in vivo. During 3D organoid formation, the origin of iPS cells affected the levels of FOXA2 and LMX1A only in the first stages of neural differentiation, whereas in the 2D model, differences were detected at the levels of both early and late neural markers FOXA2, LMX1A, NURR1, TUBB and TH. To conclude, the origin of iPS cells may significantly affect iPS differentiation abilities in teratomas, as well as exerting effects on 2D differentiation into dopaminergic neurons and the early stages of 3D midbrain organoid formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Chlebanowska
- Jagiellonian University Medical College, Sw. Anny 12, 31-008 Kraków, Poland; (P.C.); (M.S.); (K.S.); (A.T.)
- Department of Transplantation, Institute of Pediatrics, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Wielicka 265, 30-663 Krakow, Poland
| | - Maciej Sułkowski
- Jagiellonian University Medical College, Sw. Anny 12, 31-008 Kraków, Poland; (P.C.); (M.S.); (K.S.); (A.T.)
- Department of Transplantation, Institute of Pediatrics, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Wielicka 265, 30-663 Krakow, Poland
| | - Klaudia Skrzypek
- Jagiellonian University Medical College, Sw. Anny 12, 31-008 Kraków, Poland; (P.C.); (M.S.); (K.S.); (A.T.)
- Department of Transplantation, Institute of Pediatrics, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Wielicka 265, 30-663 Krakow, Poland
| | - Anna Tejchman
- Jagiellonian University Medical College, Sw. Anny 12, 31-008 Kraków, Poland; (P.C.); (M.S.); (K.S.); (A.T.)
- Department of Transplantation, Institute of Pediatrics, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Wielicka 265, 30-663 Krakow, Poland
| | - Agata Muszyńska
- Bioinformatics Research Group, Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7A, 30-387 Kraków, Poland;
- Institute of Automatic Control, Electronics and Computer Science, Silesian University of Technology, Akademicka 16, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
| | - Rezvan Noroozi
- Human Genome Variation Research Group, Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7A, 30-387 Kraków, Poland;
| | - Marcin Majka
- Jagiellonian University Medical College, Sw. Anny 12, 31-008 Kraków, Poland; (P.C.); (M.S.); (K.S.); (A.T.)
- Department of Transplantation, Institute of Pediatrics, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Wielicka 265, 30-663 Krakow, Poland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-12-659-15-93
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14
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Zhang Y, Hu W, Ma K, Zhang C, Fu X. Reprogramming of Keratinocytes as Donor or Target Cells Holds Great Promise for Cell Therapy and Regenerative Medicine. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2020; 15:680-689. [PMID: 31197578 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-019-09900-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
One of the most crucial branches of regenerative medicine is cell therapy, in which cellular material is injected into the patient to initiate the regenerative process. Cells obtained by reprogramming of the patient's own cells offer ethical and clinical advantages could provide a new source of material for therapeutic applications. Studies to date have shown that only a subset of differentiated cell types can be reprogrammed. Among these, keratinocytes, which are the most abundant proliferating cell type in the epidermis, have gained increasing attention as both donor and target cells for reprogramming and have become a new focus of regenerative medicine. As target cells for the treatment of skin defects, keratinocytes can be differentiated or reprogrammed from embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells, fibroblasts, adipose tissue stem cells, and mesenchymal cells. As donor cells, keratinocytes can be reprogrammed or direct reprogrammed into a number of cell types, including induced pluripotent stem cells, neural cells, and Schwann cells. In this review, we discuss recent advances in keratinocyte reprogramming, focusing on the induction methods, potential molecular mechanisms, conversion efficiency, and safety for clinical applications. Graphical Abstract KCs as target cells can be reprogrammed or differentiated from fibroblasts, iPSCs, ATSCs, and mesenchymal cells. And as donor cells, KCs can be reprogrammed or directly reprogrammded into iPSCs, neural cells, Schwann cells, and epidermal stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuehou Zhang
- School of Medicine, NanKai University, 94 Wei Jin Road, NanKai District, Tianjin, 300071, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regeneration of PLA and Beijing Key Research Laboratory of Skin Injury, Repair and Regeneration, Fourth Medical Center of General Hospital of PLA, 51 Fu Cheng Road, HaiDian District, Beijing, 100048, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenzhi Hu
- Key Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regeneration of PLA and Beijing Key Research Laboratory of Skin Injury, Repair and Regeneration, Fourth Medical Center of General Hospital of PLA, 51 Fu Cheng Road, HaiDian District, Beijing, 100048, People's Republic of China
| | - Kui Ma
- Key Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regeneration of PLA and Beijing Key Research Laboratory of Skin Injury, Repair and Regeneration, Fourth Medical Center of General Hospital of PLA, 51 Fu Cheng Road, HaiDian District, Beijing, 100048, People's Republic of China
| | - Cuiping Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regeneration of PLA and Beijing Key Research Laboratory of Skin Injury, Repair and Regeneration, Fourth Medical Center of General Hospital of PLA, 51 Fu Cheng Road, HaiDian District, Beijing, 100048, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xiaobing Fu
- Key Laboratory of Tissue Repair and Regeneration of PLA and Beijing Key Research Laboratory of Skin Injury, Repair and Regeneration, Fourth Medical Center of General Hospital of PLA, 51 Fu Cheng Road, HaiDian District, Beijing, 100048, People's Republic of China.
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15
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Metabolic engineering generates a transgene-free safety switch for cell therapy. Nat Biotechnol 2020; 38:1441-1450. [PMID: 32661439 DOI: 10.1038/s41587-020-0580-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Safeguard mechanisms can ameliorate the potential risks associated with cell therapies but currently rely on the introduction of transgenes. This limits their application owing to immunogenicity or transgene silencing. We aimed to create a control mechanism for human cells that is not mediated by a transgene. Using genome editing methods, we disrupt uridine monophosphate synthetase (UMPS) in the pyrimidine de novo synthesis pathway in cell lines, pluripotent cells and primary human T cells. We show that this makes proliferation dependent on external uridine and enables us to control cell growth by modulating the uridine supply, both in vitro and in vivo after transplantation in xenograft models. Additionally, disrupting this pathway creates resistance to 5-fluoroorotic acid, which enables positive selection of UMPS-knockout cells. We envision that this approach will add an additional level of safety to cell therapies and therefore enable the development of approaches with higher risks, especially those that are intended for limited treatment durations.
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16
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Cherkashova EA, Leonov GE, Namestnikova DD, Solov'eva AA, Gubskii IL, Bukharova TB, Gubskii LV, Goldstein DV, Yarygin KN. Methods of Generation of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells and Their Application for the Therapy of Central Nervous System Diseases. Bull Exp Biol Med 2020; 168:566-573. [PMID: 32157511 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-020-04754-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The use of induced pluripotent stem cells (IPSC) is a promising approach to the therapy of CNS diseases. The undeniable advantage of IPSC technology is the possibility of obtaining practically all types of somatic cells for autologous transplantation bypassing bioethical problems. The review presents integrative and non-integrative methods for obtaining IPSC and the ways of their in vitro and in vivo application for the study and treatment of neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- E A Cherkashova
- Federal Center for Cerebrovascular Pathology and Stroke, Ministry of Health of Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - G E Leonov
- N. P. Bochkov Research Center for Medical Genetics, Moscow, Russia.
| | - D D Namestnikova
- N. I. Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - A A Solov'eva
- Federal Center for Cerebrovascular Pathology and Stroke, Ministry of Health of Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - I L Gubskii
- Federal Center for Cerebrovascular Pathology and Stroke, Ministry of Health of Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - T B Bukharova
- N. P. Bochkov Research Center for Medical Genetics, Moscow, Russia
| | - L V Gubskii
- Federal Center for Cerebrovascular Pathology and Stroke, Ministry of Health of Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia.,N. I. Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
| | - D V Goldstein
- N. P. Bochkov Research Center for Medical Genetics, Moscow, Russia
| | - K N Yarygin
- V. N. Orekhovich Research Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Moscow, Russia.,Russian Medical Academy for Continuous Professional Education, Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Moscow, Russia
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17
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Chlebanowska P, Tejchman A, Sułkowski M, Skrzypek K, Majka M. Use of 3D Organoids as a Model to Study Idiopathic Form of Parkinson's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21030694. [PMID: 31973095 PMCID: PMC7037292 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21030694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Organoids are becoming particularly popular in modeling diseases that are difficult to reproduce in animals, due to anatomical differences in the structure of a given organ. Thus, they are a bridge between the in vitro and in vivo models. Human midbrain is one of the structures that is currently being intensively reproduced in organoids for modeling Parkinson’s disease (PD). Thanks to three-dimensional (3D) architecture and the use of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) differentiation into organoids, it has been possible to recapitulate a complicated network of dopaminergic neurons. In this work, we present the first organoid model for an idiopathic form of PD. iPSCs were generated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells of healthy volunteers and patients with the idiopathic form of PD by transduction with Sendai viral vector. iPSCs were differentiated into a large multicellular organoid-like structure. The mature organoids displayed expression of neuronal early and late markers. Interestingly, we observed statistical differences in the expression levels of LIM homeobox transcription factor alpha (early) and tyrosine hydroxylase (late) markers between organoids from PD patient and healthy volunteer. The obtained results show immense potential for the application of 3D human organoids in studying the neurodegenerative disease and modeling cellular interactions within the human brain.
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18
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Ortuño-Costela MDC, Cerrada V, García-López M, Gallardo ME. The Challenge of Bringing iPSCs to the Patient. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E6305. [PMID: 31847153 PMCID: PMC6940848 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20246305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Revised: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The implementation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) in biomedical research more than a decade ago, resulted in a huge leap forward in the highly promising area of personalized medicine. Nowadays, we are even closer to the patient than ever. To date, there are multiple examples of iPSCs applications in clinical trials and drug screening. However, there are still many obstacles to overcome. In this review, we will focus our attention on the advantages of implementing induced pluripotent stem cells technology into the clinics but also commenting on all the current drawbacks that could hinder this promising path towards the patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- María del Carmen Ortuño-Costela
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain. Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas “Alberto Sols”, (UAM-CSIC), 28029 Madrid, Spain;
- Grupo de Investigación Traslacional con células iPS, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), 28041 Madrid, Spain; (V.C.); (M.G.-L.)
| | - Victoria Cerrada
- Grupo de Investigación Traslacional con células iPS, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), 28041 Madrid, Spain; (V.C.); (M.G.-L.)
| | - Marta García-López
- Grupo de Investigación Traslacional con células iPS, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), 28041 Madrid, Spain; (V.C.); (M.G.-L.)
| | - M. Esther Gallardo
- Grupo de Investigación Traslacional con células iPS, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), 28041 Madrid, Spain; (V.C.); (M.G.-L.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red (CIBERER), 28029 Madrid, Spain
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19
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Xie Y, Wu L, Wang M, Cheng A, Yang Q, Wu Y, Jia R, Zhu D, Zhao X, Chen S, Liu M, Zhang S, Wang Y, Xu Z, Chen Z, Zhu L, Luo Q, Liu Y, Yu Y, Zhang L, Chen X. Alpha-Herpesvirus Thymidine Kinase Genes Mediate Viral Virulence and Are Potential Therapeutic Targets. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:941. [PMID: 31134006 PMCID: PMC6517553 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Alpha-herpesvirus thymidine kinase (TK) genes are virulence-related genes and are nonessential for viral replication; they are often preferred target genes for the construction of gene-deleted attenuated vaccines and genetically engineered vectors for inserting and expressing foreign genes. The enzymes encoded by TK genes are key kinases in the nucleoside salvage pathway and have significant substrate diversity, especially the herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) TK enzyme, which phosphorylates four nucleosides and various nucleoside analogues. Hence, the HSV-1 TK gene is exploited for the treatment of viral infections, as a suicide gene in antitumor therapy, and even for the regulation of stem cell transplantation and treatment of parasitic infection. This review introduces the effects of α-herpesvirus TK genes on viral virulence and infection in the host and classifies and summarizes the current main application domains and potential uses of these genes. In particular, mechanisms of action, clinical limitations, and antiviral and antitumor therapy development strategies are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Xie
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Liping Wu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Mingshu Wang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Anchun Cheng
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Qiao Yang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Ying Wu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Renyong Jia
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Dekang Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - XinXin Zhao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Shun Chen
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Mafeng Liu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Shaqiu Zhang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Zhiwen Xu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Zhengli Chen
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Ling Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Qihui Luo
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yunya Liu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yanling Yu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Ling Zhang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiaoyue Chen
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, China
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20
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Hypoimmunogenic Genetically Modified Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells for Tissue Regeneration. Transplantation 2019; 103:1744-1745. [PMID: 30985582 DOI: 10.1097/tp.0000000000002754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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21
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Kimura Y, Shofuda T, Higuchi Y, Nagamori I, Oda M, Nakamori M, Onodera M, Kanematsu D, Yamamoto A, Katsuma A, Suemizu H, Nakano T, Kanemura Y, Mochizuki H. Human Genomic Safe Harbors and the Suicide Gene-Based Safeguard System for iPSC-Based Cell Therapy. Stem Cells Transl Med 2019; 8:627-638. [PMID: 30887735 PMCID: PMC6591650 DOI: 10.1002/sctm.18-0039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2018] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) and recent advances in cell engineering have opened new prospects for cell‐based therapy. However, there are concerns that must be addressed prior to their broad clinical applications and a major concern is tumorigenicity. Suicide gene approaches could eliminate wayward tumor‐initiating cells even after cell transplantation, but their efficacy remains controversial. Another concern is the safety of genome editing. Our knowledge of human genomic safe harbors (GSHs) is still insufficient, making it difficult to predict the influence of gene integration on nearby genes. Here, we showed the topological architecture of human GSH candidates, AAVS1, CCR5, human ROSA26, and an extragenic GSH locus on chromosome 1 (Chr1‐eGSH). Chr1‐eGSH permitted robust transgene expression, but a 2 Mb‐distant gene within the same topologically associated domain showed aberrant expression. Although knockin iPSCs carrying the suicide gene, herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (HSV‐TK), were sufficiently sensitive to ganciclovir in vitro, the resulting teratomas showed varying degrees of resistance to the drug in vivo. Our findings suggest that the Chr1‐eGSH is not suitable for therapeutic gene integration and highlight that topological analysis could facilitate exploration of human GSHs for regenerative medicine applications. Our data indicate that the HSV‐TK/ganciclovir suicide gene approach alone may be not an adequate safeguard against the risk of teratoma, and suggest that the combination of several distinct approaches could reduce the risks associated with cell therapy. stem cells translational medicine2019;8:627&638
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuyoshi Kimura
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.,Department of Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.,Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Tomoko Shofuda
- Division of Stem Cell Research, Department of Biomedical Research and Innovation, Institute for Clinical Research, National Hospital Organization Osaka National Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yuichiro Higuchi
- Laboratory Animal Research Department, Biomedical Research Laboratory, Central Institute for Experimental Animals, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Ippei Nagamori
- Department of Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masaaki Oda
- Department of Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.,Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masayuki Nakamori
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masafumi Onodera
- Department of Human Genetics, National Center for Child Health and Development, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Daisuke Kanematsu
- Division of Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biomedical Research and Innovation, Institute for Clinical Research, National Hospital Organization Osaka National Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Atsuyo Yamamoto
- Division of Stem Cell Research, Department of Biomedical Research and Innovation, Institute for Clinical Research, National Hospital Organization Osaka National Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Asako Katsuma
- Division of Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biomedical Research and Innovation, Institute for Clinical Research, National Hospital Organization Osaka National Hospital, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Suemizu
- Laboratory Animal Research Department, Biomedical Research Laboratory, Central Institute for Experimental Animals, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Toru Nakano
- Department of Pathology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.,Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yonehiro Kanemura
- Division of Regenerative Medicine, Department of Biomedical Research and Innovation, Institute for Clinical Research, National Hospital Organization Osaka National Hospital, Osaka, Japan.,Department of Neurosurgery, National Hospital Organization Osaka National Hospital, Osaka, Japan.,Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Shinjuku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hideki Mochizuki
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
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22
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Päth G, Perakakis N, Mantzoros CS, Seufert J. Stem cells in the treatment of diabetes mellitus - Focus on mesenchymal stem cells. Metabolism 2019; 90:1-15. [PMID: 30342065 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2018.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2018] [Revised: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 10/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus type 1 and type 2 have become a global epidemic with dramatically increasing incidences. Poorly controlled diabetes is associated with severe life-threatening complications. Beside traditional treatment with insulin and oral anti-diabetic drugs, clinicians try to improve patient's care by cell therapies using embryonic stem cells (ESC), induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) and adult mesenchymal stem cells (MSC). ESC display a virtually unlimited plasticity, including the differentiation into insulin producing β-cells, but they raise ethical concerns and bear, like iPSC, the risk of tumours. IPSC may further inherit somatic mutations and remaining somatic transcriptional memory upon incomplete re-programming, but allow the generation of patient/disease-specific cell lines. MSC avoid such issues but have not been successfully differentiated into β-cells. Instead, MSC and their pericyte phenotypes outside the bone marrow have been recognized to secrete numerous immunomodulatory and tissue regenerative factors. On this account, the term 'medicinal signaling cells' has been proposed to define the new conception of a 'drug store' for injured tissues and to stay with the MSC nomenclature. This review presents the biological background and the resulting clinical potential and limitations of ESC, iPSC and MSC, and summarizes the current status quo of cell therapeutic concepts and trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Günter Päth
- Division of Endocrinology and Diabetology, Department of Medicine II, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Nikolaos Perakakis
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Christos S Mantzoros
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jochen Seufert
- Division of Endocrinology and Diabetology, Department of Medicine II, Medical Center - University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Germany
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23
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Here we summarize recent advancements in β cell replacement as a therapy for type 1 diabetes. RECENT FINDINGS β cell replacement therapy has been proposed as a cure for type 1 diabetes with the introduction of the Edmonton protocol for cadaveric islet transplantation. To allow widespread use of this approach, efforts have focused on establishing an abundant source of insulin-producing β cells, protecting transplanted cells from ischemia-mediated death, immune rejection, and re-occurring autoimmunity. Recent developments addressing these issues include generation of insulin-producing cells from human pluripotent stem cells, different encapsulation strategies and prevention of ischemia upon transplant. SUMMARY Despite significant advances in generating functional β cells from human pluripotent stem cells, several key challenges remain in regard to the survival of β cell grafts, protection from (auto-) immune destruction and implementation of additional safety mechanisms before a stem cell-based cell replacement therapy approach can be widely applied. Taking current findings into consideration, we outline a multilayered approach to design immune-privileged β cells from stem cells using state of the art genome editing technologies that if successfully incorporated could result in great benefit for diabetic patients and improve clinical results for cell replacement therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Castro-Gutierrez
- Barbara Davis Center for Diabetes, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
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