20(S)-Protopanaxadiol-Induced Apoptosis in MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cell Line through the Inhibition of PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathway

Silencing PCMT1 enhances the sensitivity of breast cancer cells to paclitaxel through the PI3K/Akt/STMN1 pathway

This study aimed to investigate whether silencing Protein L-isoaspartate (D-aspartate) O-methyltransferase (PCMT1) expression can enhance the sensitivity of breast cancer cells to paclitaxel and its possible mechanism. Tumor tissues and adjacent histologically normal tissues were collected from patients with breast cancer admitted to our hospital. Human normal breast epithelial cells MCF10A, human breast cancer cells MCF-7, and paclitaxel-resistant breast cancer cells MCF-7/PR were purchased. MCF-7/PR cells were further grouped into negative control (NC) group, si-PCMT1 group (transfected with si-PCMT1), 740Y-P group (treated with 740Y-P, an activator of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/ v-Akt Murine Thymoma Viral Oncogene (AKT) signaling pathway), and si-PCMT1 + 740Y-P group (transfected with si-PCMT1 and then treated with 740Y-P). The expression level of PCMT1 in tissues and cells was detected by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Western blot analysis was used to detect the protein expression level of PCMT1 in tissues and cells as well as the protein level of p-PI3K, PI3K, p-Akt, Akt, and Stathmin1 (STMN1) in cells. 3-(4,5)-dimethylthiahiazo(-z-y1)-3,5-di-phenytetrazoliumromide (MTT) and colony formation assays were used to determine cell viability, scratch assay was used to assess the migration ability of cells, and Transwell assay was used to assess the invasion ability of cells. The expression of PCMT1 was remarkably up-regulated in breast cancer tissues and MCF-7/PR cells. Silencing PCMT1 expression significantly inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion of MCF-7/PR cells, and alleviated the resistance of cancer cells to paclitaxel. Additionally, silencing PCMT1 expression also inhibited the activation of PI3K/Akt/STMN1 pathway in MCF-7/PR cells, while activating PI3K/Akt/STMN1 pathway significantly reversed the effect of silencing PCMT1 expression on MCF-7/PR cells. PCMT1 is highly expressed in breast cancer tissues and MCF-7/PR cells, and silencing PCMT1 expression can not only inhibit the development of breast cancer but also enhance paclitaxel sensitivity. Its mechanism of action may be achieved by inhibiting PI3K/Akt/STMN1 signaling.

Progress in approved drugs from natural product resources

Natural products (NPs) have consistently played a pivotal role in pharmaceutical research, exerting profound impacts on the treatment of human diseases. A significant proportion of approved molecular entity drugs are either directly derived from NPs or indirectly through modifications of NPs. This review presents an overview of NP drugs recently approved in China, the United States, and other countries, spanning various disease categories, including cancers, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, central nervous system disorders, and infectious diseases. The article provides a succinct introduction to the origin, activity, development process, approval details, and mechanism of action of these NP drugs.

Updating the therapeutic role of ginsenosides in breast cancer: a bibliometrics study to an in-depth review

Breast cancer is currently the most common malignancy and has a high mortality rate. Ginsenosides, the primary bioactive constituents of ginseng, have been shown to be highly effective against breast cancer both in vitro and in vivo. This study aims to comprehensively understand the mechanisms underlying the antineoplastic effects of ginsenosides on breast cancer. Through meticulous bibliometric analysis and an exhaustive review of pertinent research, we explore and summarize the mechanism of action of ginsenosides in treating breast cancer, including inducing apoptosis, autophagy, inhibiting epithelial-mesenchymal transition and metastasis, and regulating miRNA and lncRNA. This scholarly endeavor not only provides novel prospects for the application of ginsenosides in the treatment of breast cancer but also suggests future research directions for researchers.

The Role of Death-Associated Protein Kinase-1 in Cell Homeostasis-Related Processes

Tremendous amount of financial resources and manpower have been invested to understand the function of numerous genes that are deregulated during the carcinogenesis process, which can be targeted for anticancer therapeutic interventions. Death-associated protein kinase 1 (DAPK-1) is one of the genes that have shown potential as biomarkers for cancer treatment. It is a member of the kinase family, which also includes Death-associated protein kinase 2 (DAPK-2), Death-associated protein kinase 3 (DAPK-3), Death-associated protein kinase-related apoptosis-inducing kinase 1 (DRAK-1) and Death-associated protein kinase-related apoptosis-inducing kinase 2 (DRAK-2). DAPK-1 is a tumour-suppressor gene that is hypermethylated in most human cancers. Additionally, DAPK-1 regulates a number of cellular processes, including apoptosis, autophagy and the cell cycle. The molecular basis by which DAPK-1 induces these cell homeostasis-related processes for cancer prevention is less understood; hence, they need to be investigated. The purpose of this review is to discuss the current understanding of the mechanisms of DAPK-1 in cell homeostasis-related processes, especially apoptosis, autophagy and the cell cycle. It also explores how the expression of DAPK-1 affects carcinogenesis. Since deregulation of DAPK-1 is implicated in the pathogenesis of cancer, altering DAPK-1 expression or activity may be a promising therapeutic strategy against cancer.

Effects of Monensin and Rapamycin Combination Therapy on Tumor Growth and Apoptosis in a Xenograft Mouse Model of Neuroblastoma

Neuroblastoma is the most common pediatric solid tumor originating from the neural crest. New treatment options are needed to improve treatment outcomes and the survival of patients with neuroblastoma. Monensin is an ionophore antibiotic with antiparasitic, antibacterial, and anticancer properties isolated from Streptomyces cinnamonensis. The aim of this study was to investigate the therapeutic effects of single and combined monensin and rapamycin treatments on mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) signaling pathway-mediated apoptosis and tumor growth in an SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cell xenograft model. Control, monensin, rapamycin, and monensin + rapamycin groups were formed in the xenograft neuroblastoma model obtained from CD1 nude mice, and tumor volumes and animal weights were recorded throughout the treatment. In xenograft neuroblastoma tumor tissues, apoptosis was determined by TUNEL (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end-labeling) and cleaved-caspase 3 immunohistochemistry, and PI3K (phosphoinositide-3-kinase)/AKT/mTOR expression was determined by the immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence methods. The combination of monensin and rapamycin was to reduce the growth of xenograft neuroblastoma tumor tissues, trigger apoptosis, and suppress the expression of PI3K/AKT/mTOR. A significant increase in apoptotic cell rate was demonstrated in the combination group, supported by cleaved-caspase 3 immunohistochemistry results. In addition, it was reported that the combination treatment regime triggered apoptosis by reducing the expression of phosphorylated PI3K/AKT/mTOR. Our preclinical results may be a precursor to develop new therapeutic approaches to treat neuroblastoma.

The Role of miRNA-221 and miRNA-34a in Non-Melanoma Skin Cancer of the Head and Neck Region

Non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) is one of the most frequent types of malignancy in the human body with an increasing incidence. Short, non-coding RNA molecules called microRNAs (miRNAs) can control post-transcriptional gene expression and they have a significant role in several physiological cellular processes and pathologies, including cancer. Depending on the functions of the genes, miRNAs may function as oncogenes or tumor suppressors. The aim of this paper was to describe the role of miRNA-34a and miRNA-221 in head and neck NMSC. Thirty-eight NMSC match paired (tumor and adjacent) tissue samples were evaluated by qRT-PCR. Total RNA was extracted and isolated from tissue samples using the phenol-chloroform (Trireagent) method according to the manufacturer's protocol. The concentration of RNA was measured by a NanoDrop-1000 spectrophotometer. The expression level of each miRNA was calculated by threshold cycle. For all statistical tests, the 0.05 significance level was used and two-tailed p values. All analyses were conducted in an R environment for statistical computing and graphics. We found the miRNA-221 being overexpressed in squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) (p < 0.05), basal cell carcinoma (BCC) and basosquamous cell carcinoma (BSC) compared with adjacent normal tissue. Additionally, the levels of miRNA-221 were two times higher (p < 0.05) in cases where the excision of the tumor was done with positive margins (R1), which means that we are the first to highlight the potential role of miRNA-221 in the microscopical local invasion. Mi-RNA-34a expression was altered in the malignant tissue compared with the adjacent normal one both in BCC and SCC but not statistically significantly. In conclusion, NMSC are challenging because of their increasing incidence and rapidly evolving development and discovering their molecular mechanisms of action lead us to understand tumorigenesis and evolution, while also contributing to the implementation of novel therapeutic keys.

Gallic acid suppresses the progression of triple-negative breast cancer HCC1806 cells via modulating PI3K/AKT/EGFR and MAPK signaling pathways

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a severe threat to women’s health because of its aggressive nature, early age of onset, and high recurrence rate. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to evaluate the anti-tumor effects of Gallic acid (GA) on the TNBC HCC1806 cells in vitro. The cell proliferation was detected by MTT and plate clone formation assays, cell apoptosis, cell cycle, and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) were analyzed by flow cytometry and Hoechst 33258 staining assays, and the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation were also investigated. Real-Time PCR and western blot were examined to explore the mechanism of action. The results indicated that GA suppressed HCC1806 cells proliferation and promoted HCC1806 cells apoptosis. Meanwhile, GA treatment changed the morphology of the HCC1806 cells. In addition, GA blocked the HCC1806 cells cycle in the S phase, and it induced cells apoptosis accompanied by ROS accumulation and MMP depolarization. Real-Time PCR results suggested that GA increased Bax, Caspase-3, Caspase-9, P53, JINK and P38 mRNA expression, and decreased Bcl-2, PI3K, AKT and EGFR mRNA expression. Western blotting results suggested that GA increased Bax, cleaved-Caspase-3, cleaved-Caspase-9, P53, P-ERK1/2, P-JNK, P-P38 proteins expression, and decreased Bcl-2, P-PI3K, P-AKT, P-EGFR proteins expression. Furthermore, molecular docking suggested that GA has the high affinity for PI3K, AKT, EGFR, ERK1/2, JNK, and P38. In conclusion, GA could suppress HCC1806 cells proliferation and promote HCC1806 cells apoptosis through the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway and induces ROS generation which further inhibits PI3K/AKT/EGFR and activates MAPK signaling pathways. Our study will provide some new references for using GA in the treatment of TNBC.

20(S)-Protopanaxadiol from Panax ginseng Induces Apoptosis and Autophagy in Gastric Cancer Cells by Inhibiting Src

20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD), a metabolite of Panax ginseng, has multiple pharmacological properties. However, the effects of PPD against human gastric cancer have not been elucidated. Our purpose in this study was to investigate if PPD has anticancer effects against human gastric cancer in vitro. Cell viability, migration, clone formation, and invasion were assessed to explore the effects of PPD on cancer cells. PI and annexin V staining as well as immunoblotting were employed to determine if PPD-induced apoptosis and autophagy of MKN1 and MKN45 cells. The target of PPD was identified using immunoblotting, overexpression analysis, and flow cytometric analysis. PPD exhibited significantly suppressed cell viability, migration, colony formation, and invasion. Phosphorylation of Src and its down-stream effectors were inhibited by PPD. PPD-enhanced apoptosis and autophagy in a dose- and time-dependent manner by inhibiting Src. Collectively, our results demonstrate that PPD induces apoptosis and autophagy in gastric cancer cells in vitro by inhibiting Src.

Gut Microbiota: Therapeutic Targets of Ginseng Against Multiple Disorders and Ginsenoside Transformation

Panax ginseng, as the king of Chinese herb, has significant therapeutic effects on obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, fatty liver disease, colitis, diarrhea, and many other diseases. This review systematically summarized recent findings, which show that ginseng plays its role by regulating gut microbiota diversity, and gut microbiota could also regulate the transformation of ginsenosides. We conclude the characteristics of ginseng in regulating gut microbiota, as the potential targets to prevent and treat metabolic diseases, colitis, neurological diseases, cancer, and other diseases. Ginseng treatment can increase some probiotics such as Bifidobacterium, Bacteroides, Verrucomicrobia, Akkermansia, and reduce pathogenic bacteria such as Deferribacters, Lactobacillus, Helicobacter against various diseases. Meanwhile, Bacteroides, Eubacterium, and Bifidobacterium were found to be the key bacteria for ginsenoside transformation in vivo. Overall, ginseng can regulate gut microbiome diversity, further affect the synthesis of secondary metabolites, as well as promote the transformation of ginsenosides for improving the absorptivity of ginsenosides. This review can provide better insight into the interaction of ginseng with gut microbiota in multiple disorders and ginsenoside transformation.

Predicting molecular initiating events using chemical target annotations and gene expression

BACKGROUND

The advent of high-throughput transcriptomic screening technologies has resulted in a wealth of publicly available gene expression data associated with chemical treatments. From a regulatory perspective, data sets that cover a large chemical space and contain reference chemicals offer utility for the prediction of molecular initiating events associated with chemical exposure. Here, we integrate data from a large compendium of transcriptomic responses to chemical exposure with a comprehensive database of chemical-protein associations to train binary classifiers that predict mechanism(s) of action from transcriptomic responses. First, we linked reference chemicals present in the LINCS L1000 gene expression data collection to chemical identifiers in RefChemDB, a database of chemical-protein interactions. Next, we trained binary classifiers on MCF7 human breast cancer cell line derived gene expression profiles and chemical-protein labels using six classification algorithms to identify optimal analysis parameters. To validate classifier accuracy, we used holdout data sets, training-excluded reference chemicals, and empirical significance testing of null models derived from permuted chemical-protein associations. To identify classifiers that have variable predicting performance across training data derived from different cellular contexts, we trained a separate set of binary classifiers on the PC3 human prostate cancer cell line.

RESULTS

We trained classifiers using expression data associated with chemical treatments linked to 51 molecular initiating events. This analysis identified and validated 9 high-performing classifiers with empirical p-values lower than 0.05 and internal accuracies ranging from 0.73 to 0.94 and holdout accuracies of 0.68 to 0.92. High-ranking predictions for training-excluded reference chemicals demonstrating that predictive accuracy extends beyond the set of chemicals used in classifier training. To explore differences in classifier performance as a function of training data cellular context, MCF7-trained classifier accuracies were compared to classifiers trained on the PC3 gene expression data for the same molecular initiating events.

CONCLUSIONS

This methodology can offer insight in prioritizing candidate perturbagens of interest for targeted screens. This approach can also help guide the selection of relevant cellular contexts for screening classes of candidate perturbagens using cell line specific model performance.

Promoting Apoptosis, a Promising Way to Treat Breast Cancer With Natural Products: A Comprehensive Review

Breast cancer is one of the top-ranked malignant carcinomas associated with morbidity and mortality in women worldwide. Chemotherapy is one of the main approaches to breast cancer treatment. Breast cancer initially responds to traditional first- and second-line drugs (aromatase inhibitor, tamoxifen, and carboplatin), but eventually acquires resistance, and certain patients relapse within 5 years. Chemotherapeutic drugs also have obvious toxic effects. In recent years, natural products have been widely used in breast cancer research because of their low side effects, low toxicity, and good efficacy based on their multitarget therapy. Apoptosis, a programmed cell death, occurs as a normal and controlled process that promotes cell growth and death. Inducing apoptosis is an important strategy to control excessive breast cancer cell proliferation. Accumulating evidence has revealed that natural products become increasingly important in breast cancer treatment by suppressing cell apoptosis. In this study, we reviewed current studies on natural product–induced breast cancer cell apoptosis and summarized the proapoptosis mechanisms including mitochondrial, FasL/Fas, PI3K/AKT, reactive oxygen species, and mitogen-activated protein kinase–mediated pathway. We hope that our review can provide direction in the search for candidate drugs derived from natural products to treat breast cancer by promoting cell apoptosis.

Ginsenoside Rc Ameliorates Endothelial Insulin Resistance via Upregulation of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a major health concern which may cause cardiovascular complications. Insulin resistance (IR), regarded as a hallmark of T2DM, is characterized by endothelial dysfunction. Ginsenoside Rc is one of the main protopanaxadiol-type saponins with relatively less research on it. Despite researches confirming the potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities of ginsenoside Rc, the potential benefits of ginsenoside Rc against vascular complications have not been explored. In the present study, we investigated the effects of ginsenoside Rc on endothelial IR and endothelial dysfunction with its underlying mechanisms using high glucose- (HG-) cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) in vitro and a type 2 diabetic model of db/db mice in vivo. The results showed that ginsenoside Rc corrected the imbalance of vasomotor factors, reduced the production of Ang (angiotensin) II, and activated angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2)/Ang-(1–7)/Mas axis in HG-treated HUVECs. Besides, ginsenoside Rc improved the impaired insulin signaling pathway and repressed oxidative stress and inflammatory pathways which constitute key factors leading to IR. Interestingly, the effects of ginsenoside Rc on HG-induced HUVECs were abolished by the selective ACE2 inhibitor MLN-4760. Furthermore, ginsenoside Rc exhibited anti-inflammatory as well as antioxidant properties and ameliorated endothelial dysfunction via upregulation of ACE2 in db/db mice, which were confirmed by the application of MLN-4760. In conclusion, our findings reveal a novel action of ginsenoside Rc and demonstrate that ginsenoside Rc ameliorated endothelial IR and endothelial dysfunction, at least in part, via upregulation of ACE2 and holds promise for the treatment of diabetic vascular complications.

Overexpression of Mucin 1 Suppresses the Therapeutical Efficacy of Disulfiram against Canine Mammary Tumor

Simple Summary

Canine mammary tumor is one of the most prevalent canine tumor types in China. Clinical studies showed that the high expression of mucin 1 (MUC1) protein is significantly associated with the malignancy and poor prognosis of canine mammary tumor. Therefore, it is worthwhile to investigate the expression of mucin 1 in developing treatments against canine mammary tumors. In the present study, it is demonstrated that disulfiram, an approved medication in treating human alcoholism, also has inhibitory effects on the growth of canine mammary tumor cells both in vitro and in vivo. With the overexpression of MUC1, the inhibitory effects of disulfiram decrease accordingly. Moreover, disulfiram is shown to inhibit phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/serine/threonine protein kinase (Akt) signaling transduction, which is attenuated by MUC1 overexpression. Overall, these results indicate that the expression level of MUC1 is detrimental to determining the anti-tumor activity of disulfiram. Further consideration should be given when treating the canine mammary tumor with disulfiram or other PI3K/Akt inhibitors.

Abstract

Mucin 1 (MUC1), a transmembrane protein, is closely associated with the malignancy and metastasis of canine mammary tumors; however, the role of overexpressed MUC1 in the development of cancer cells and response to drug treatment remains unclear. To address this question, we developed a new canine mammary tumor cell line, CIPp-MUC1, with an elevated expression level of MUC1. In vitro studies showed that CIPp-MUC1 cells are superior in proliferation and migration than wild-type control, which was associated with the upregulation of PI3K, p-Akt, mTOR, Bcl-2. In addition, overexpression of MUC1 in CIPp-MUC1 cells inhibited the suppressing activity of disulfiram on the growth and metastasis of tumor cells, as well as inhibiting the pro-apoptotic effect of disulfiram. In vivo studies, on the other side, showed more rapid tumor growth and stronger resistance to disulfiram treatment in CIPp-MUC1 xenograft mice than in wild-type control. In conclusion, our study demonstrated the importance of MUC1 in affecting the therapeutical efficiency of disulfiram against canine mammary tumors, indicating that the expression level of MUC1 should be considered for clinical use of disulfiram or other drugs targeting PI3K/Akt pathway.

20(S)-Protopanaxadiol inhibits epithelial-mesenchymal transition by promoting retinoid X receptor alpha in human colorectal carcinoma cells

Colorectal carcinoma (CRC) recurrence is often accompanied by metastasis. Most metastasis undergo through epithelial‐mesenchymal transition (EMT). Studies showed that retinol X receptor alpha (RXRα) and 20(S)‐Protopanaxadiol (PPD) have anti‐tumour effects. However, the anti‐metastasis effect of 20(S)‐PPD and the effect of RXRα on EMT‐induced metastasis are few studies on. Therefore, the role of RXRα and 20(S)‐PPD in CRC cell metastasis remains to be fully elucidated. RXRα with clinicopathological characteristics and EMT‐related expression in clinical samples were examined. Then, RXRα and EMT level in SW480 and SW620 cells, overexpressed and silenced RXRα in SW620 cells and SW480 cells, respectively, were evaluated. Finally, 20(S)‐PPD effect on SW620 and SW480 cells was evaluated. The results showed that a lower RXRα expression in cancer tissues, and a moderate negative correlation between RXRα and N stage, and tended to higher level of EMT. SW480 and SW620 cells had the highest and lowest RXRα expression among four CRC cell lines. SW480 had lower EMT level than SW620. Furthermore, 20(S)‐PPD increased RXRα and inhibited EMT level in SW620 cell. Finally, 20(S)‐PPD cannot restore SW480 cells EMT level to normal when RXRα silencing. These findings suggest that 20(S)‐PPD may inhibit EMT process in CRC cells by regulating RXRα expression.

(20S)-Protopanaxadiol Ginsenosides Induced Cytotoxicity via Blockade of Autophagic Flux in HGC-27 Cells

(20S)-Protopanaxadiol ginsenosides Rg3, Rh2 and PPD have been demonstrated for their anticancer activity. However, the underlying mechanism of their antitumor activity remains unclear. In the present study, we investigated the role of these three ginsenosides on cell proliferation and death of human gastric cancer cells (HGC-27 cells). The sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay, Western blot analysis, fluorescence microscopy, confocal microscopy, high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis, flow cytometry, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used to evaluate cell proliferation, apoptosis, and autophagy. The results showed that both Rh2 and PPD were more effective than Rg3 in inhibiting HGC-27 cell proliferation and inducing cytoplasmic vacuolation, while no significant changes in apoptosis were observed. Interestingly, cytoplasmic vacuolation and blockade of autophagy flux were observed after treatment with Rh2 and PPD. Rh2 obviously up-regulated the expression of the LC3II and p62. Furthermore, the increase in lysosomal pH and membrane rupture was observed in Rh2-treated and PPD-treated cells. When HGC-27 cells were pretreated with bafilomycin A1, a specific inhibitor of endosomal acidification, cellular vacuolization was increased, and the cell viability was significantly decreased, which indicated that Rh2-induced lysosome-damage accelerated cell death. Furthermore, data derived from mitochondrial analysis showed that excessive mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) and dysregulation of mitochondrial energy metabolism were caused by Rh2 and PPD treatment in HGC-27 cells. Taken together, these phenomena indicated that Rh2 and PPD inhibited HCG-27 cells proliferation by inducing mitochondria damage, dysfunction of lysosomes, and blockade of autophagy flux. The number of glycosyl groups at C-3 position could have an important effect on the cytotoxicity of Rg3, Rh2 and PPD.

Wild‑type IDH1 affects cell migration by modulating the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway in primary glioblastoma cells

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common type of brain cancer and has the highest mortality. Dysregulated expression of wild-type isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) has been demonstrated to promote the progression of primary GBM without accumulating D-2-hydroxyglutarate, which differs from IDH1 mutation-related mechanisms of tumorigenesis. Previous studies have revealed several roles of wild-type IDH1 in primary GBM, involving proliferation and apoptosis. However, the function of IDH1 in cell migration has not been investigated. In the current study, the results of bioinformatics analysis revealed that IDH1 expression was significantly upregulated in patients with primary GBM. Wound healing and Transwell assays demonstrated that IDH1 overexpression promoted cell migration in primary GBM cells and that IDH1 knockdown hindered this process. Furthermore, α-ketoglutarate (α-KG), which is the main product of IDH1-catalyzed reactions, was significantly decreased by IDH1 knockdown and upregulated by IDH1 overexpression. α-KG treatment significantly increased the migration of primary GBM cells. Additionally, RNA sequence analysis of patients with primary GBM reported significant alterations in the expression of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway-regulated genes, including Myc, Snail family transcriptional repressor 2 and Twist-related protein 1, which are primarily cell migration regulatory factors. Western blotting revealed that the overexpression or knockdown of IDH1 promoted or inhibited the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway, respectively. α-KG treatment of primary GBM cells also promoted the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. Furthermore, IDH1-overexpressing and α-KG-treated U87 cells were incubated with rapamycin, an mTOR-specific inhibitor, and the results revealed that rapamycin treatment reversed the increased cell migration caused by IDH1 overexpression and α-KG treatment. The results indicated that IDH1 regulated the migration of primary GBM cells by altering α-KG levels and that the function of the IDH1/α-KG axis may rely on PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway regulation.

Natural Product Ginsenoside 20(S)-25-Methoxyl-Dammarane-3β, 12β, 20-Triol in Cancer Treatment: A Review of the Pharmacological Mechanisms and Pharmacokinetics

Panax ginseng has been used as an herbal medicine for thousands of years. Most of its pharmacological effects are attributed to its constituent ginsenosides, including 20(S)-25-methoxyl-dammarane-3β, 12β, 20-triol (20(S)-25-OCH₃-PPD), which is one of the protopanaxadiol type ginsenosides. It has been found to exhibit anticancer effects by interacting with multiple pharmacological pathways, such as the Wnt/β-catenin, MDM2, ERK/MAPK, and STAT3 signaling pathways. However, its therapeutic potential could be limited by its low bioavailability mainly due to its low aqueous solubility. Thus, several studies have been conducted on its pharmacokinetics and its delivery systems, so as to increase its oral bioavailability. In this review, comprehensive information on its varying pharmacological pathways in cancer, as well as its pharmacokinetic behavior and pharmaceutical strategies, is provided. This information would be useful in the understanding of its diverse mechanisms and pharmacokinetics as an anticancer drug, leading to the design of superior 20(S)-25-OCH₃-PPD-containing formulations that maximize its therapeutic potential.

Dammarane-type leads panaxadiol and protopanaxadiol for drug discovery: Biological activity and structural modification

Based on the definite therapeutic benefits, such as neuroprotective, cardioprotective, anticancer, anti-diabetic and so on, the Panax genus which contains many valuable plants, including ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer), notoginseng (Panax notoginseng) and American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.), attracts research focus. Actually, the biological and pharmacological effects of the Panax genus are mainly attributed to the abundant ginsenosides. However, the low membrane permeability and the gastrointestinal tract influence seriously limit the absorption and bioavailability of ginsenosides. The acid or base hydrolysates of ginsenosides, 20 (R,S)-panaxadiol and 20 (R,S)-protopanaxadiol showed improved bioavailability and diverse pharmacological activities. Moreover, relative stable skeletons and active hydroxyl group at C-3 position and other reactive sites are suitable for structural modification to improve biological activities. In this review, the pharmacological activities of panaxadiol, protopanaxadiol and their structurally modified derivatives are comprehensively summarized.

Insights into gastrointestinal microbiota-generated ginsenoside metabolites and their bioactivities

The gastrointestinal microbiota and host co-evolve into a complex 'super-organism,' and this relationship plays a vital role in many physiological processes, such as drug metabolism. Ginseng is an important medicinal resource and the main ingredients are ginsenosides, which are less polar, difficult to absorb, and have low bioavailability. However, studies have shown that the biological activity of ginsenosides such as compound K (CK), ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3), ginsenoside Rh2 (Rh2), 20(S)-protopanaxatriol (20(S)-PPT), and 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (20(S)-PPD) is closely related to the gastrointestinal microbiota. In this paper, the metabolic pathway of gastrointestinal microbiota-generated ginsenosides and the main pharmacological effects of these metabolites are discussed. Furthermore, our study provides a new insight into the discovery of novel drugs. Specifically, in new drug screening process, candidates with low biological activity and bioavailability should not be excluded. Because their metabolites may exhibit good pharmacological effects due to the involvement of the gastrointestinal microbiota. In addition, in further research studies to develop probiotics, a combination of agents could exert greater efficacy than single agents. Moreover, differences in lifestyle and diet lead to differences in the gastrointestinal microbiota in the human body. Therefore, administration of the same drug dose to different individuals could elicit different therapeutic effects, owing to the involvement of the gastrointestinal microbiota. Thus, treatment accuracy could be achieved by detecting the gastrointestinal microbiota before drug treatment.HighlightsGastrointestinal microbiota plays a decisive role in bioactivities of ginsenosides.The metabolic pathway and main pharmacological effects of ginsenoside metabolites are discussed.It provides new insights into novel drug discovery and further research to find probiotic, combinations to exert greater efficacy.Differences in lifestyle and diet, varies the gastrointestinal microbiota in the human body. However, the same dose of a drug producing different therapeutic effects may involve gastrointestinal microbiota.

miR-205-3p promotes proliferation and reduces apoptosis of breast cancer MCF-7 cells and is associated with poor prognosis of breast cancer patients

Background

To study the expression of microribonucleic acid (miR)‐205 in breast cancer and its effects on the proliferation and apoptosis of breast cancer cells.

Methods

Breast cancer cell line MCF‐7 cells with stable expression of miR‐205‐3p were constructed. Cell proliferation, invasion, and apoptosis were detected via MTT assay, transwell assay, and flow cytometry, respectively. The expressions of Ezrin, LaminA/C, cleaved caspase‐3, Bcl‐2, and Bax were detected via Western blotting. The expressions of miR‐205‐3p in breast cancer tissues and para‐carcinoma tissues were detected via quantitative PCR (qPCR).

Results

In transfection group, cell proliferation and invasion capacities were increased significantly (P < 0.01), but apoptotic cells were significantly reduced (P < 0.01). In addition, the expressions of Ezrin, LaminA/C, and cleaved caspase‐3 in the transfection group were significantly decreased (P < 0.01), but the Bcl‐2/Bax ratio was significantly increased (P < 0.01). The miR‐205‐3p expression in tumor tissues of breast cancer patients was significantly higher than that in para‐carcinoma tissue, but Ezrin, LaminA/C, and cleaved caspase‐3 expressions in tumor tissues were remarkably declined (P < 0.01), while the Bcl‐2/Bax ratio was remarkably increased (P < 0.01). Moreover, the 5‐year survival of patients with high expression of miR‐205‐3p was significantly shorter than patients with normal or low expression (P < 0.01).

Conclusion

Highly expressed miR‐205‐3p can promote the proliferation and invasion and reduce the apoptosis of breast cancer cells, and the high expression of miR‐205‐3p can significantly reduce the survival time of patients.

20(S)-Protopanaxadiol Inhibits Angiotensin II-Induced Epithelial- Mesenchymal Transition by Downregulating SIRT1

20(S)-Protopanaxadiol (PPD) is one of the major active metabolites in ginseng saponin. Our previous studies revealed a broad spectrum of antitumor effects of PPD. Angiotensin II (Ang II), the biologically active peptide of the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), plays a critical role in the metastasis of various cancers. However, its role in the anti-metastatic effects of PPD is not clearly understood. In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effect of PPD on Ang II-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells, and the potential molecular mechanisms of suppression of NSCLC migration and metastasis by PPD. Treatment of A549 cells with Ang II increased metastases in an experimental model of cancer metastasis in vivo. PPD effectively prevented Ang II-induced EMT, as indicated by upregulation of E-cadherin and downregulation of vimentin. Additionally, Ang II upregulated the class III deacetylase sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) expression in EMT progression, while downregulation of SIRT1 was involved in suppression of Ang II-induced EMT by PPD. Moreover, the inhibitory effect of PPD was reversed by SIRT1 upregulation, and PPD demonstrated synergy with an SIRT1 inhibitor on Ang II-induced EMT. Taken together, our data reveal the mechanism of the anti-metastatic effects of PPD on Ang II-induced EMT and indicate that PPD can be used as an effective anti-tumor treatment.

Inhibition of miR‑214 attenuates the migration and invasion of triple‑negative breast cancer cells

Triple‑negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a subtype of breast cancer. MicroRNA (miR)‑214 is closely associated with controlling the development of tumor cells; therefore, in the present study, the target gene and effects of miR‑214 on TNBC cells were explored. Luciferase activity was examined by luciferase reporter assay. The viability, invasion and migration of MDA‑MB‑231 TNBC cells were measured using Cell Counting kit‑8, Transwell and wound‑healing assays, respectively. The expression levels of various factors were determined using reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting. The results demonstrated that the expression levels of miR‑214 were higher and the levels of α1‑antitrypsin (α1‑AT) were lower in TNBC tissues compared with in normal tissues. Subsequently, α1‑AT was revealed to be a target of miR‑214. Furthermore, inhibition of miR‑214 decreased cell viability, invasion and migration, enhanced the expression of E‑cadherin and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases‑2, and reduced the expression of metastatic tumour antigen 1 and matrix metalloproteinase‑2. Inhibition of miR‑214 also significantly downregulated the phosphorylation of protein kinase B (Akt) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), and markedly downregulated that of phosphoinositide 3‑kinase (PI3K); however, the expression levels of total PI3K, Akt and mTOR remained stable in all groups. Taken together, these findings indicated that α1‑AT may be a target of miR‑214. Downregulation of miR‑214 markedly suppressed the viability, migration and invasion of MDA‑MB‑231 cells, and inhibited the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. These findings suggested that miR‑214 targeting α1‑AT may be a potential mechanism underlying TNBC development.

High Expression of DEPDC1 Promotes Malignant Phenotypes of Breast Cancer Cells and Predicts Poor Prognosis in Patients With Breast Cancer

DEP domain containing 1 (DEPDC1) is a novel tumor-associated gene, which is aberrantly expressed in multiple types of cancer and involves in tumorigenesis and cancer progression. Here, we examined the functional involvement and underlying mechanism of DEPDC1 in breast cancer. In this study, the immunohistochemistry results demonstrated that DEPDC1 was high-expressed in breast cancer tissues compared with the paired adjacent normal breast tissues, and its tendency at protein level was consistent with mRNA level from TCGA data. Moreover, DEPDC1 mRNA level revealed the strongest association with poor prognosis and development in breast cancer. In vitro assays showed that DEPDC1 overexpression resulted in significant promotion of proliferation by regulating cell cycle in MCF-7 cells, whilst an opposite effect was found in the MDA-MB-231 cells with DEPDC1 deletion. Notably, further investigation indicated DEPDC1's ability of promoting breast cancer cells migration and invasion. In addition, we discovered that DEPDC1 caused hyper-activation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling in breast cancer cells. Therefore, the increased DEPDC1 expression in breast cancer is correlated with disease progression and poor survival, which suggested that DEPDC1 might be a potential therapeutic target against this disease.

miRNA-221 promotes cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma progression by targeting PTEN

Background

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (CSCC) is a common type of skin malignancy. MicroRNA-221 (miRNA-221) is a critical non-coding RNA in tumor initiation and progression. However, the molecular mechanisms of miRNA-221 in the development of CSCC remain unknown. This study investigated the expression of miRNA-221 in CSCC and its potential tumor biological functions.

Methods

MTT assay, colony assay, PCR, and Western blot were adopted.

Results

In this study, miRNA-221 expression was significantly higher in CSCC tissues and cell lines than in normal tissues and cells (P < 0.05). Further functional experiments indicated that miRNA-221 knockdown inhibited the proliferation and cell cycle, while upregulation of miRNA-221 presented the opposite role. The dual reporter gene assays indicated that PTEN is a direct target gene of miRNA-221. PTEN protein or mRNA levels were decreased after the cells were transfected with miR-221 mimics.

Conclusions

Taken together, the obtained results indicated that miR-221 plays an oncogenic function in CSCC by targeting PTEN and further suggest that miR-221 may be a potential target for CSCC diagnosis and treatment.

Inhibition of Prostate Cancer DU-145 Cells Proliferation by Anthopleura anjunae Oligopeptide (YVPGP) via PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathway

We investigated the antitumor mechanism of Anthopleura anjunae oligopeptide (AAP-H, YVPGP) in prostate cancer DU-145 cells in vitro and in vivo. Results indicated that AAP-H was nontoxic and exhibited antitumor activities. Cell cycle analysis indicated that AAP-H may arrest DU-145 cells in the S phase. The role of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B/mammalian rapamycin target protein (PI3K/AKT/mTOR) signaling pathway in the antitumor mechanism of APP-H was investigated. Results showed that AAP-H treatment led to dose-dependent reduction in the levels of p-AKT (Ser473), p-PI3K (p85), and p-mTOR (Ser2448), whereas t-AKT and t-PI3K levels remained unaltered compared to the untreated DU-145 cells. Inhibition of PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in the DU-145 cells by employing inhibitor LY294002 (10 μM) or rapamycin (20 nM) effectively attenuated AAP-H-induced phosphorylation of AKT and mTOR. At the same time, inhibitor addition further elevated AAP-H-induced cleaved-caspase-3 levels. Furthermore, the effect of AAP-H on tumor growth and the role of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway in nude mouse model were also investigated. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that activated AKT, PI3K, and mTOR levels were reduced in DU-145 xenografts. Western blotting showed that AAP-H treatment resulted in dose-dependent reduction in p-AKT (Ser473), p-PI3K (p85), and p-mTOR (Ser2448) levels, whereas t-AKT and t-PI3K levels remained unaltered. Similarly, Bcl-xL levels decreased, whereas that of Bax increased after AAP-H treatment. AAP-H also increased initiator (caspase 8 and 9) and executor caspase (caspase 3 and 7) levels. Therefore, the antitumor mechanism of APP-H on DU-145 cells may involve regulation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway, which eventually promotes apoptosis via mitochondrial and death receptor pathways. Thus, the hydrophobic oligopeptide (YVPGP) can be developed as an adjuvant for the prevention or treatment of prostate cancer in the future.