Changes in uPA, PAI-1, and TGF-β Production during Breast Cancer Cell Interaction with Human Mesenchymal Stroma/Stem-Like Cells (MSC)

Qigui-Yishen decoction delays renal fibrosis in mice with chronic kidney disease by regulating TM and PAI-1

OBJECTIVE

To explore the mechanism of Qigui-Yishen decoction in delaying renal fibrosis in mice by regulating thrombin regulatory protein (Thrombomodulin, TM) and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) based on network pharmacology.

METHODS

The active ingredients of Qigui Yishen decoction and their target molecules associated with chronic kidney disease (CKD) were retrieved from websites and databases, sorted out, and screened, and the possible targets of Qigui Yishen decoction for reducing CKD renal fibrosis were predicted and analyzed. Forty Institute of Cancer research (ICR) rats were used to establish a unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) model, and divided into several groups: sham operation group, model group, high concentration decoction group (1 g/mL), low concentration decoction group (0.46 g/mL), and benazepril group (0.1 g/mL). At the end of the experiment, the levels of serum creatinine (Scr) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) were detected. Masson staining was used to observe changes in the renal interstitial fibrosis index. Immunohistochemistry and western blot were used to detect the expressions of TM, PAI-1, transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) and collagen I (Col I) in kidney tissues, and the differences between groups were compared.

RESULTS

Qigui Yishen decoction contains 42 effective ingredients such as sitosterol, mannitol, and quercetin, with 662 drug targets and 16154 disease targets. Analysis revealed 570 potential targets, including TM4SF19, PAIP1, TGF-β1, and Col I-AI. Compared to the sham operation group, all treatment groups exhibited increased Scr and BUN levels (P<0.05) and enhanced renal interstitial fibrosis (P<0.05) after UUO model establishment. Moreover, immunohistochemical results showed significant increases in PAI-1, TGF-β1, and Col I (all P<0.05), and a significant decrease in TM expression (P<0.05). Compared to the model group, the high concentration decoction group, low concentration decoction group and benazepril group had no significant difference in Scr and BUN values (P>0.05), but the renal interstitial fibrosis index was lower (P<0.05). Also, the relative expressions of PAI-1, TGF-β1 and Col I in the kidney tissue of mice were decreased, while the relative expression of TM was increased (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

Qigi Yishen decoction has the characteristics of multiple components and multiple targets, and can play a role in delaying renal fibrosis by regulating the expression of PAI-1, TGF-β1, Col I, and TM.

Role of Culinary Indian Spices in the Regulation of TGF-β Signaling Pathway in Inflammation-Induced Liver Cancer

SCOPE

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) results from various etiologies, such as Hepatitis B and C, Alcoholic and Non-alcoholic fatty liver disorders, fibrosis, and cirrhosis. About 80 to 90% of HCC cases possess cirrhosis, which is brought on by persistent liver inflammation. TGF-β is a multifunctional polypeptide molecule that acts as a pro-fibrogenic marker, inflammatory cytokine, immunosuppressive agent, and pro-carcinogenic growth factor during the progression of HCC. The preclinical and clinical evidence illustrates that TGF-β can induce epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, promoting progression and hepatocyte immune evasion. Therefore, targeting the TGF-β pathway can be a promising therapeutic option against HCC.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We carry out a systemic analysis of eight potentially selected culinary Indian spices: Turmeric, Black pepper, Ginger, Garlic, Fenugreek, Red pepper, Clove, Cinnamon, and their bioactives in regulation of the TGF-β pathway against liver cancer.

CONCLUSION

Turmeric and its active constituent, curcumin, possess the highest therapeutic potential in treating inflammation-induced HCC and they also have the maximum number of ongoing in-vivo and in-vitro studies.

Targeting inflammation as cancer therapy

Inflammation has accompanied human beings since the emergence of wounds and infections. In the past decades, numerous efforts have been undertaken to explore the potential role of inflammation in cancer, from tumor development, invasion, and metastasis to the resistance of tumors to treatment. Inflammation-targeted agents not only demonstrate the potential to suppress cancer development, but also to improve the efficacy of other therapeutic modalities. In this review, we describe the highly dynamic and complex inflammatory tumor microenvironment, with discussion on key inflammation mediators in cancer including inflammatory cells, inflammatory cytokines, and their downstream intracellular pathways. In addition, we especially address the role of inflammation in cancer development and highlight the action mechanisms of inflammation-targeted therapies in antitumor response. Finally, we summarize the results from both preclinical and clinical studies up to date to illustrate the translation potential of inflammation-targeted therapies.

Navigating the Cytokine Seas: Targeting Cytokine Signaling Pathways in Cancer Therapy

Cancer remains one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, necessitating continuous efforts to develop effective therapeutic strategies. Over the years, advancements in our understanding of the complex interplay between the immune system and cancer cells have led to the development of immunotherapies that revolutionize cancer treatment. Cytokines, as key regulators of the immune response, are involved in both the initiation and progression of cancer by affecting inflammation and manipulating multiple intracellular signaling pathways that regulate cell growth, proliferation, and migration. Cytokines, as key regulators of inflammation, have emerged as promising candidates for cancer therapy. This review article aims to provide an overview of the significance of cytokines in cancer development and therapy by highlighting the importance of targeting cytokine signaling pathways as a potential therapeutic approach.

Exploring the Three-Dimensional Frontier: Advancements in MSC Spheroids and Their Implications for Breast Cancer and Personalized Regenerative Therapies

To more accurately replicate the in vivo three-dimensional (3D) mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) niche and enhance cellular phenotypes for superior in vivo treatments, MSC functionalization through in vitro 3D culture approaches has gained attention. The organization of MSCs in 3D spheroids results in altered cell shape, cytoskeleton rearrangement, and polarization. Investigations have revealed that the survival and secretory capability of MSCs are positively impacted by moderate hypoxia within the inner zones of MSC spheroids. The spheroid hypoxic microenvironment enhances the production of angiogenic and anti-apoptotic molecules, including HGF, VEGF, and FGF-2. Furthermore, it upregulates the expression of hypoxia-adaptive molecules such as CXCL12 and HIF-1, inhibiting MSC death. The current review focuses on the latest developments in fundamental and translational research concerning three-dimensional MSC systems. This emphasis extends to the primary benefits and potential applications of MSC spheroids, particularly in the context of breast cancer and customized regenerative therapies.

Biomarkers in Breast Cancer: An Old Story with a New End

Breast cancer is the second most frequent cancer in the world. It is a heterogeneous disease and the leading cause of cancer mortality in women. Advances in molecular technologies allowed for the identification of new and more specifics biomarkers for breast cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and risk prediction, enabling personalized treatments, improving therapy, and preventing overtreatment, undertreatment, and incorrect treatment. Several breast cancer biomarkers have been identified and, along with traditional biomarkers, they can assist physicians throughout treatment plan and increase therapy success. Despite the need of more data to improve specificity and determine the real clinical utility of some biomarkers, others are already established and can be used as a guide to make treatment decisions. In this review, we summarize the available traditional, novel, and potential biomarkers while also including gene expression profiles, breast cancer single-cell and polyploid giant cancer cells. We hope to help physicians understand tumor specific characteristics and support decision-making in patient-personalized clinical management, consequently improving treatment outcome.

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells in breast cancer development and management

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) encompass a heterogeneous population of fibroblastic progenitor cells that reside in multiple tissues around the body. They are endowed with capacities to differentiate into multiple connective tissue lineages, including chondrocytes, adipocytes, and osteoblasts, and are thought to function as trophic cells recruited to sites of injury and inflammation where they contribute to tissue regeneration. In keeping with these roles, MSCs also to home to sites of breast tumorigenesis, akin to their migration to wounds, and participate in tumor stroma formation. Mounting evidence over the past two decades has described the critical regulatory roles for tumor-associated MSCs in various aspects of breast tumor pathogenesis, be it tumor initiation, growth, angiogenesis, tumor microenvironment formation, immune evasion, cancer cell migration, invasion, survival, therapeutic resistance, dissemination, and metastatic colonization. In this review, we present a brief summary of the role of MSCs in breast tumor development and progression, highlight some of the molecular frameworks underlying their pro-malignant contributions, and present evidence of their promising utility in breast cancer therapy.

Transforming Growth Factor-Beta (TGF-β) Signaling in Cancer-A Betrayal Within

A ubiquitously expressed cytokine, transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) plays a significant role in various ongoing cellular mechanisms. The gain or loss-of-function of TGF-β and its downstream mediators could lead to a plethora of diseases includes tumorigenesis. Specifically, at the early onset of malignancy TGF-β act as tumour suppressor and plays a key role in clearing malignant cells by reducing the cellular proliferation and differentiation thus triggers the process of apoptosis. Subsequently, TGF-β at an advanced stage of malignancy promotes tumorigenesis by augmenting cellular transformation, epithelial-mesenchymal-transition invasion, and metastasis. Besides playing the dual roles, depending upon the stage of malignancy, TGF-β also regulates cell fate through immune and stroma components. This oscillatory role of TGF-β to fight against cancer or act as a traitor to collaborate and crosstalk with other tumorigenic signaling pathways and its betrayal within the cell depends upon the cellular context. Therefore, the current review highlights and understands the dual role of TGF-β under different cellular conditions and its crosstalk with other signaling pathways in modulating cell fate.

Tumor Microenvironment Uses a Reversible Reprogramming of Mesenchymal Stromal Cells to Mediate Pro-tumorigenic Effects

The role of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) in the tumor microenvironment is well described. Available data support that MSCs display anticancer activities, and that their reprogramming by cancer cells in the tumor microenvironment induces their switch toward pro-tumorigenic activities. Here we discuss the recent evidence of pro-tumorigenic effects of stromal cells, in particular (i) MSC support to cancer cells through the metabolic reprogramming necessary to maintain their malignant behavior and stemness, and (ii) MSC role in cancer cell immunosenescence and in the establishment and maintenance of immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment. We also discuss the mechanisms of tumor microenvironment mediated reprogramming of MSCs, including the effects of hypoxia, tumor stiffness, cancer-promoting cells, and tumor extracellular matrix. Finally, we summarize the emerging strategies for reprogramming tumor MSCs to reactivate anticancer functions of these stromal cells.

Emerging data supporting stromal cell therapeutic potential in cancer: reprogramming stromal cells of the tumor microenvironment for anti-cancer effects

After more than a decade of controversy on the role of stromal cells in the tumor microenvironment, the emerging data shed light on pro-tumorigenic and potential anti-cancer factors, as well as on the roots of the discrepancies. We discuss the pro-tumorigenic effects of stromal cells, considering the effects of tumor drivers like hypoxia and tumor stiffness on these cells, as well as stromal cell-mediated adiposity and immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment, and cancer initiating cells' cellular senescence and adaptive metabolism. We summarize the emerging data supporting stromal cell therapeutic potential in cancer, discuss the possibility to reprogram stromal cells of the tumor microenvironment for anti-cancer effects, and explore some causes of discrepancies on the roles of stromal cells in cancer in the available literature.

Anti-Tumor Effects of Exosomes Derived from Drug-Incubated Permanently Growing Human MSC

Similar to growth-limited human primary cultures of mesenchymal stroma/stem-like cells (MSC), the continuously proliferating human MSC544 cell line produced extracellular vesicles as characterized by expression of the tetraspanin molecules CD9, CD63, and CD81. Release of these particles was predominantly detectable during continuous cell growth of MSC544 in contrast to confluency-mediated transient growth arrest. For therapeutic use, these particles were isolated from proliferating MSC544 after taxol treatment and applied to different cancer cell cultures. A pronounced cytotoxicity of lung, ovarian, and breast cancer cells was observed primarily with taxol-loaded exosomes, similar to the effects displayed by application of taxol substance. While these findings suggested pronounced cancer cell targeting of MSC544 exosomes, a tumor therapeutic approach was performed using a mouse in vivo breast cancer model. Thus, intravenous injection of taxol-loaded MSC544 exosomes displayed superior tumor-reducing capabilities as compared to application of taxol exosomes by oral gavage. To broaden this therapeutic spectrum, epirubicin was applied to MSC544, and the derived exosomes likewise exhibited significant cytotoxic effects in different cancer cell cultures. These findings suggest an unlimited source for large-scale exosome production with reproducible quality to enable variable drug targeting of tumors or other diseases.

Nanomaterials for oncotherapies targeting the hallmarks of cancer

An increasing amount of evidence has demonstrated the diverse functionalities of nanomaterials in oncotherapies such as drug delivery, imaging, and killing cancer cells. This review aims to offer an authoritative guide for the development of nanomaterial-based oncotherapies and shed light on emerging yet understudied hallmarks of cancer where nanoparticles can help improve cancer control. With this aim, three nanomaterials, i.e. those based on gold, graphene, and liposome, were selected to represent and encompass metal inorganic, nonmetal inorganic, and organic nanomaterials, and four oncotherapies, i.e. phototherapies, immunotherapies, cancer stem cell therapies, and metabolic therapies, were characterized based on the differential hallmarks of cancer that they target. We also view physical plasma as a cocktail of reactive species and carrier of nanomaterials and focus on its roles in targeting the hallmarks of cancer provided with its unique traits and ability to selectively induce epigenetic and genetic modulations in cancer cells that halt tumor initiation and progression. This review provides a clear understanding of how the physico-chemical features of particles at the nanoscale contribute alone or create synergistic effects with current treatment modalities in combating each of the hallmarks of cancer that ultimately leads to desired therapeutic outcomes and shapes the toolbox for cancer control.

Role of MSC in the Tumor Microenvironment

The tumor microenvironment represents a dynamically composed matrix in which tissue-associated cancer cells are embedded together with a variety of further cell types to form a more or less separate organ-like structure. Constantly mutual interactions between cells of the tumor microenvironment promote continuous restructuring and growth in the tumor. A distinct organization of the tumor stroma also facilitates the formation of transient cancer stem cell niches, thereby contributing to progressive and dynamic tumor development. An important but heterogeneous mixture of cells that communicates among the cancer cells and the different tumor-associated cell types is represented by mesenchymal stroma-/stem-like cells (MSC). Following recruitment to tumor sites, MSC can change their functionalities, adapt to the tumor's metabolism, undergo differentiation and synergize with cancer cells. Vice versa, cancer cells can alter therapeutic sensitivities and change metastatic behavior depending on the type and intensity of this MSC crosstalk. Thus, close cellular interactions between MSC and cancer cells can eventually promote cell fusion by forming new cancer hybrid cells. Consequently, newly acquired cancer cell functions or new hybrid cancer populations enlarge the plasticity of the tumor and counteract successful interventional strategies. The present review article highlights some important features of MSC within the tumor stroma.

Reversible Growth-Arrest of a Spontaneously-Derived Human MSC-Like Cell Line

Life cycle limitation hampers the production of high amounts of primary human mesenchymal stroma-/stem-like cells (MSC) and limits cell source reproducibility for clinical applications. The characterization of permanently growing MSC544 revealed some differentiation capacity and the simultaneous presence of known MSC markers CD73, CD90, and CD105 even after continuous long-term culture for more than one year and 32 passages. The expression of CD13, CD29, CD44, and CD166 were identified as further surface proteins, all of which were also simultaneously detectable in various other types of primary MSC populations derived from the umbilical cord, bone marrow, and placenta suggesting MSC-like properties in the cell line. Proliferating steady state MSC544 exhibited immune-modulatory activity similar to a subpopulation of long-term growth-inhibited MSC544 after 189d of continuous culture in confluency. This confluent connective cell layer with fibroblast-like morphology can spontaneously contract and the generated space is subsequently occupied by new cells with regained proliferative capacity. Accordingly, the confluent and senescence-associated beta-galactosidase-positive MSC544 culture with about 95% G0/G1 growth-arrest resumed re-entry into the proliferative cell cycle within 3d after sub-confluent culture. The MSC544 cells remained viable during confluency and throughout this transition which was accompanied by marked changes in the release of proteins. Thus, expression of proliferation-associated genes was down-modulated in confluent MSC544 and re-expressed following sub-confluent conditions whilst telomerase (hTERT) transcripts remained detectable at similar levels in both, confluent growth-arrested and proliferating MSC544. Together with the capability of connective cell layer formation for potential therapeutic approaches, MSC544 provide a long term reproducible human cell source with constant properties.

Transcriptomic Response of Breast Cancer Cells MDA-MB-231 to Docosahexaenoic Acid: Downregulation of Lipid and Cholesterol Metabolism Genes and Upregulation of Genes of the Pro-Apoptotic ER-Stress Pathway

Despite considerable efforts in prevention and therapy, breast cancer remains a major public health concern worldwide. Numerous studies using breast cancer cell lines have shown the antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effects of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Some studies have also demonstrated the inhibitory effect of DHA on the migration and invasion of breast cancer cells, making DHA a potential anti-metastatic agent. Thus, DHA has shown its potential as a chemotherapeutic adjuvant. However, the molecular mechanisms triggering DHA effects remain unclear, and the aim of this study was to provide a transcriptomic basis for further cellular and molecular investigations. Therefore, MDA-MB-231 cells were treated with 100 µM DHA for 12 h or 24 h before RNA-seq analysis. The results show the great impact of DHA-treatment on the transcriptome, especially after 24 h of treatment. The impact of DHA is particularly visible in genes involved in the cholesterol biosynthesis pathway that is strongly downregulated, and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-stress response that is, conversely, upregulated. This ER-stress and unfolded protein response could explain the pro-apoptotic effect of DHA. The expression of genes related to migration and invasion (especially SERPINE1, PLAT, and MMP11) is also impacted by DHA. In conclusion, this transcriptomic analysis supports the antiproliferative, pro-apoptotic and anti-invasive effects of DHA, and provides new avenues for understanding its molecular mechanisms.