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Fariña-Jerónimo H, Martín-Ramírez R, González-Fernández R, Medina L, de Vera A, Martín-Vasallo P, Plata-Bello J. Androgen deficiency is associated with a better prognosis in glioblastoma. Eur J Med Res 2024; 29:57. [PMID: 38233838 DOI: 10.1186/s40001-024-01648-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/07/2024] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The androgen receptor (AR) has been demonstrated to play a role in the pathogenesis of glioblastoma; however, the implications of circulating testosterone levels in the biology of glioblastoma remain unknown. AIM This study aimed to analyze the association between circulating testosterone levels and the prognosis of patients with glioblastoma. METHODS Forty patients with primary glioblastoma were included in the study. The main prognostic endpoint was progression-free survival (PFS). Circulating testosterone levels were used to determine the state of androgen deficiency (AD). AR expression was analyzed by reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, Western blot, and immunofluorescence. Survival analysis was performed using the log-rank test and univariate and multivariate Cox regression analysis. RESULTS Most of the patients showed AR expression, and it was mainly located in the cytoplasm, as well as in the nucleus of tumor cells. Patients with AD presented a better PFS than those patients with normal levels (252.0 vs. 135.0 days; p = 0.041). Furthermore, normal androgenic status was an independent risk factor for progression in a multivariate regression model (hazard ratio = 6.346; p = 0.004). CONCLUSION Circulating testosterone levels are associated with the prognosis of glioblastoma because patients with AD show a better prognosis than those with normal androgenic status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helga Fariña-Jerónimo
- Neurosurgery Department, Hospital Universitario de Canarias, Calle Ofra s/n La Cuesta, CP 38320, La Laguna, S/C de Tenerife, Spain
| | | | | | - Lilian Medina
- Biochemistry Laboratory, Hospital Universitario de Canarias, La Laguna, Spain
| | - Antonia de Vera
- Biochemistry Laboratory, Hospital Universitario de Canarias, La Laguna, Spain
| | | | - Julio Plata-Bello
- Neurosurgery Department, Hospital Universitario de Canarias, Calle Ofra s/n La Cuesta, CP 38320, La Laguna, S/C de Tenerife, Spain.
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2
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Zalcman N, Larush L, Ovadia H, Charbit H, Magdassi S, Lavon I. Intracranial Assessment of Androgen Receptor Antagonists in Mice Bearing Human Glioblastoma Implants. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 25:332. [PMID: 38203506 PMCID: PMC10779261 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25010332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The median survival time of patients with an aggressive brain tumor, glioblastoma, is still poor due to ineffective treatment. The discovery of androgen receptor (AR) expression in 56% of cases offers a potential breakthrough. AR antagonists, including bicalutamide and enzalutamide, induce dose-dependent cell death in glioblastoma and glioblastoma-initiating cell lines (GIC). Oral enzalutamide at 20 mg/kg reduces subcutaneous human glioblastoma xenografts by 72% (p = 0.0027). We aimed to further investigate the efficacy of AR antagonists in intracranial models of human glioblastoma. In U87MG intracranial models, nude mice administered Xtandi (enzalutamide) at 20 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg demonstrated a significant improvement in survival compared to the control group (p = 0.24 and p < 0.001, respectively), confirming a dose-response relationship. Additionally, we developed a newly reformulated version of bicalutamide, named "soluble bicalutamide (Bic-sol)", with a remarkable 1000-fold increase in solubility. This reformulation significantly enhanced bicalutamide levels within brain tissue, reaching 176% of the control formulation's area under the curve. In the U87MG intracranial model, both 2 mg/kg and 4 mg/kg of Bic-sol exhibited significant efficacy compared to the vehicle-treated group (p = 0.0177 and p = 0.00364, respectively). Furthermore, combination therapy with 8 mg/kg Bic-sol and Temozolomide (TMZ) demonstrated superior efficacy compared to either Bic-sol or TMZ as monotherapies (p = 0.00706 and p = 0.0184, respectively). In the ZH-161 GIC mouse model, the group treated with 8 mg/kg Bic-sol as monotherapy had a significantly longer lifespan than the groups treated with TMZ or the vehicle (p < 0.001). Our study demonstrated the efficacy of androgen receptor antagonists in extending the lifespan of mice with intracranial human glioblastoma, suggesting a promising approach to enhance patient outcomes in the fight against this challenging disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nomi Zalcman
- Leslie and Michael Gaffin Center for Neuro-Oncology, Hadassah Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel; (N.Z.)
- Agnes Ginges Center for Human Neurogenetics, Department of Neurology, Hadassah Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel;
| | - Liraz Larush
- Casali Center, Institute of Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel; (L.L.); (S.M.)
| | - Haim Ovadia
- Agnes Ginges Center for Human Neurogenetics, Department of Neurology, Hadassah Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel;
| | - Hanna Charbit
- Leslie and Michael Gaffin Center for Neuro-Oncology, Hadassah Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel; (N.Z.)
- Agnes Ginges Center for Human Neurogenetics, Department of Neurology, Hadassah Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel;
| | - Shlomo Magdassi
- Casali Center, Institute of Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel; (L.L.); (S.M.)
| | - Iris Lavon
- Leslie and Michael Gaffin Center for Neuro-Oncology, Hadassah Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel; (N.Z.)
- Agnes Ginges Center for Human Neurogenetics, Department of Neurology, Hadassah Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel;
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3
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Gan X, Liu Y, Wang X. Targeting androgen receptor in glioblastoma. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2023; 191:104142. [PMID: 37742885 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2023.104142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastomas are primary brain tumors that originate from glial stem cells or progenitor cells. There is a large difference in the incidence of glioblastoma between males and females. Studies revealed that the gender differences in the tumor may be attributable to the androgen receptor signaling axis. The incidence rate of glioblastoma in men is higher than that in women. Aberrant activation of the androgen receptor signaling pathway, or interactions between the androgen receptor signaling axis and other signaling axes promote the development of glioblastoma. Therefore, targeting the androgen receptor holds promise as a therapeutic approach for glioblastoma. This review investigates the dynamics of drug research into the treatment of glioblastoma by targeting the androgen receptor. The first finding in line with expectations is that androgen receptor antagonists, represented by enzalutamide, have been studied and shown to have anti-glioblastoma effects. In addition, it was found that the combination of 5-alpha reductase inhibitors and androgen receptor antagonists resulted in better therapeutic outcomes than each of them alone. Similar results were obtained with the combination of an epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitor and an androgen receptor antagonist. In addition, four small molecule compounds have been shown to exert significant anti-glioblastoma effects by directly or indirectly targeting the androgen receptor. Expectantly, one of these small molecules, seviteronel, progressed to the phase II clinical trial stage. These findings suggest that targeting the androgen receptor for glioblastoma may be a promising therapeutic option.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Gan
- Guangxi Zhuang Yao Medicine Center of Engineering and Technology, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, 13 Wuhe Road, Qingxiu District, Nanning 530200, China; Guangxi key laboratory of marine drugs, Institute of marine drugs, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, 13 Wuhe Road, Qingxiu District, Nanning 530200, China
| | - Yonghong Liu
- Guangxi key laboratory of marine drugs, Institute of marine drugs, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, 13 Wuhe Road, Qingxiu District, Nanning 530200, China.
| | - Xueni Wang
- Guangxi Zhuang Yao Medicine Center of Engineering and Technology, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, 13 Wuhe Road, Qingxiu District, Nanning 530200, China; Guangxi key laboratory of marine drugs, Institute of marine drugs, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, 13 Wuhe Road, Qingxiu District, Nanning 530200, China.
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4
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Dewdney B, Jenkins MR, Best SA, Freytag S, Prasad K, Holst J, Endersby R, Johns TG. From signalling pathways to targeted therapies: unravelling glioblastoma's secrets and harnessing two decades of progress. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2023; 8:400. [PMID: 37857607 PMCID: PMC10587102 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-023-01637-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma, a rare, and highly lethal form of brain cancer, poses significant challenges in terms of therapeutic resistance, and poor survival rates for both adult and paediatric patients alike. Despite advancements in brain cancer research driven by a technological revolution, translating our understanding of glioblastoma pathogenesis into improved clinical outcomes remains a critical unmet need. This review emphasises the intricate role of receptor tyrosine kinase signalling pathways, epigenetic mechanisms, and metabolic functions in glioblastoma tumourigenesis and therapeutic resistance. We also discuss the extensive efforts over the past two decades that have explored targeted therapies against these pathways. Emerging therapeutic approaches, such as antibody-toxin conjugates or CAR T cell therapies, offer potential by specifically targeting proteins on the glioblastoma cell surface. Combination strategies incorporating protein-targeted therapy and immune-based therapies demonstrate great promise for future clinical research. Moreover, gaining insights into the role of cell-of-origin in glioblastoma treatment response holds the potential to advance precision medicine approaches. Addressing these challenges is crucial to improving outcomes for glioblastoma patients and moving towards more effective precision therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany Dewdney
- Cancer Centre, Telethon Kids Institute, Nedlands, WA, 6009, Australia.
- Centre For Child Health Research, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, 6009, Australia.
| | - Misty R Jenkins
- Immunology Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, 3052, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3010, Australia
| | - Sarah A Best
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3010, Australia
- Personalised Oncology Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, 3052, Australia
| | - Saskia Freytag
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3010, Australia
- Personalised Oncology Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, 3052, Australia
| | - Krishneel Prasad
- Immunology Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Melbourne, 3052, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3010, Australia
| | - Jeff Holst
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, Australia
| | - Raelene Endersby
- Cancer Centre, Telethon Kids Institute, Nedlands, WA, 6009, Australia
- Centre For Child Health Research, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, 6009, Australia
| | - Terrance G Johns
- Cancer Centre, Telethon Kids Institute, Nedlands, WA, 6009, Australia
- Centre For Child Health Research, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, 6009, Australia
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5
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Quintero JC, Díaz NF, Rodríguez-Dorantes M, Camacho-Arroyo I. Cancer Stem Cells and Androgen Receptor Signaling: Partners in Disease Progression. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:15085. [PMID: 37894767 PMCID: PMC10606328 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242015085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Revised: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer stem cells exhibit self-renewal, tumorigenesis, and a high differentiation potential. These cells have been detected in every type of cancer, and different signaling pathways can regulate their maintenance and proliferation. Androgen receptor signaling plays a relevant role in the pathophysiology of prostate cancer, promoting cell growth and differentiation processes. However, in the case of prostate cancer stem cells, the androgen receptor negatively regulates their maintenance and self-renewal. On the other hand, there is evidence that androgen receptor activity positively regulates the generation of cancer stem cells in other types of neoplasia, such as breast cancer or glioblastoma. Thus, the androgen receptor role in cancer stem cells depends on the cellular context. We aimed to analyze androgen receptor signaling in the maintenance and self-renewal of different types of cancer stem cells and its action on the expression of transcription factors and surface markers associated with stemness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Carlos Quintero
- Unidad de Investigación en Reproducción Humana, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología-Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City 11000, Mexico;
| | - Néstor Fabián Díaz
- Departamento de Fisiología y Desarrollo Celular, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología, Mexico City 11000, Mexico;
| | | | - Ignacio Camacho-Arroyo
- Unidad de Investigación en Reproducción Humana, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología-Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City 11000, Mexico;
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6
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Li Y, Orahoske C, Salem F, Johnson A, Tannous C, Devole L, Zhang W, Lathia JD, Wang B, Su B. Lead Optimization of Androgen Receptor-HSP27 Disrupting Agents in Glioblastoma. J Med Chem 2023; 66:5567-5583. [PMID: 37023333 PMCID: PMC11068032 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c02022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common malignant brain tumor with poor prognosis under the current standard treatment. It is critical to develop new approaches to selectively battle the disease. GBM sex differences suggest that an androgen receptor (AR) is a potential therapeutic target to treat AR-overexpressed GBM. Heat shock 27 kDa protein (HSP27) is a well-documented chaperone protein that stabilizes AR. Inhibition of HSP27 leads to AR degradation, indicating that HSP27 inhibitors could suppress AR activity in GBM. We have identified a lead HSP27 inhibitor that could induce AR degradation. Lead optimization resulted with two new derivatives (compounds 4 and 26) showing potent anti-GBM activity and improved drug distribution in comparison to the lead compound. Compounds 4 and 6 exhibit IC50s of 35 and 23 nM, respectively, to inhibit cell proliferation and also show significant activity to decrease the tumor growth in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaxin Li
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, College of Arts and Sciences, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, Ohio 44115, United States
| | - Cody Orahoske
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, College of Arts and Sciences, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, Ohio 44115, United States
| | - Fatma Salem
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, College of Arts and Sciences, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, Ohio 44115, United States
| | - Aidyn Johnson
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, College of Arts and Sciences, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, Ohio 44115, United States
| | - Christia Tannous
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, College of Arts and Sciences, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, Ohio 44115, United States
| | - Lucas Devole
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, College of Arts and Sciences, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, Ohio 44115, United States
| | - Wenjing Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, College of Arts and Sciences, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, Ohio 44115, United States
| | - Justin D Lathia
- Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, and Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, Ohio 44195, United States
| | - Bingcheng Wang
- Rammelkamp Center for Research and Department of Medicine, MetroHealth Campus, Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44109, United States
| | - Bin Su
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, College of Arts and Sciences, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, Ohio 44115, United States
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7
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Schnöller LE, Piehlmaier D, Weber P, Brix N, Fleischmann DF, Nieto AE, Selmansberger M, Heider T, Hess J, Niyazi M, Belka C, Lauber K, Unger K, Orth M. Systematic in vitro analysis of therapy resistance in glioblastoma cell lines by integration of clonogenic survival data with multi-level molecular data. Radiat Oncol 2023; 18:51. [PMID: 36906590 PMCID: PMC10007763 DOI: 10.1186/s13014-023-02241-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite intensive basic scientific, translational, and clinical efforts in the last decades, glioblastoma remains a devastating disease with a highly dismal prognosis. Apart from the implementation of temozolomide into the clinical routine, novel treatment approaches have largely failed, emphasizing the need for systematic examination of glioblastoma therapy resistance in order to identify major drivers and thus, potential vulnerabilities for therapeutic intervention. Recently, we provided proof-of-concept for the systematic identification of combined modality radiochemotherapy treatment vulnerabilities via integration of clonogenic survival data upon radio(chemo)therapy with low-density transcriptomic profiling data in a panel of established human glioblastoma cell lines. Here, we expand this approach to multiple molecular levels, including genomic copy number, spectral karyotyping, DNA methylation, and transcriptome data. Correlation of transcriptome data with inherent therapy resistance on the single gene level yielded several candidates that were so far underappreciated in this context and for which clinically approved drugs are readily available, such as the androgen receptor (AR). Gene set enrichment analyses confirmed these results, and identified additional gene sets, including reactive oxygen species detoxification, mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (MTORC1) signaling, and ferroptosis/autophagy-related regulatory circuits to be associated with inherent therapy resistance in glioblastoma cells. To identify pharmacologically accessible genes within those gene sets, leading edge analyses were performed yielding candidates with functions in thioredoxin/peroxiredoxin metabolism, glutathione synthesis, chaperoning of proteins, prolyl hydroxylation, proteasome function, and DNA synthesis/repair. Our study thus confirms previously nominated targets for mechanism-based multi-modal glioblastoma therapy, provides proof-of-concept for this workflow of multi-level data integration, and identifies novel candidates for which pharmacological inhibitors are readily available and whose targeting in combination with radio(chemo)therapy deserves further examination. In addition, our study also reveals that the presented workflow requires mRNA expression data, rather than genomic copy number or DNA methylation data, since no stringent correlation between these data levels could be observed. Finally, the data sets generated in the present study, including functional and multi-level molecular data of commonly used glioblastoma cell lines, represent a valuable toolbox for other researchers in the field of glioblastoma therapy resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leon Emanuel Schnöller
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital, LMU München, Marchioninistrasse 15, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Daniel Piehlmaier
- Research Unit Radiation Cytogenetics (ZYTO), Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health GmbH, 85764, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Peter Weber
- Research Unit Radiation Cytogenetics (ZYTO), Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health GmbH, 85764, Neuherberg, Germany.,Clinical Cooperation Group 'Personalized Radiotherapy in Head and Neck Cancer' Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health GmbH, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Nikko Brix
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital, LMU München, Marchioninistrasse 15, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Daniel Felix Fleischmann
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital, LMU München, Marchioninistrasse 15, 81377, Munich, Germany.,German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Munich, Germany.,German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Alexander Edward Nieto
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital, LMU München, Marchioninistrasse 15, 81377, Munich, Germany
| | - Martin Selmansberger
- Research Unit Radiation Cytogenetics (ZYTO), Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health GmbH, 85764, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Theresa Heider
- Research Unit Radiation Cytogenetics (ZYTO), Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health GmbH, 85764, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Julia Hess
- Research Unit Radiation Cytogenetics (ZYTO), Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health GmbH, 85764, Neuherberg, Germany.,Clinical Cooperation Group 'Personalized Radiotherapy in Head and Neck Cancer' Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health GmbH, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Maximilian Niyazi
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital, LMU München, Marchioninistrasse 15, 81377, Munich, Germany.,German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Munich, Germany.,Bavarian Cancer Research Center (BKFZ), Munich, Germany
| | - Claus Belka
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital, LMU München, Marchioninistrasse 15, 81377, Munich, Germany.,Clinical Cooperation Group 'Personalized Radiotherapy in Head and Neck Cancer' Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health GmbH, Neuherberg, Germany.,German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Munich, Germany.,Bavarian Cancer Research Center (BKFZ), Munich, Germany
| | - Kirsten Lauber
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital, LMU München, Marchioninistrasse 15, 81377, Munich, Germany.,Clinical Cooperation Group 'Personalized Radiotherapy in Head and Neck Cancer' Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health GmbH, Neuherberg, Germany.,German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Munich, Germany
| | - Kristian Unger
- Research Unit Radiation Cytogenetics (ZYTO), Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health GmbH, 85764, Neuherberg, Germany. .,Clinical Cooperation Group 'Personalized Radiotherapy in Head and Neck Cancer' Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health GmbH, Neuherberg, Germany.
| | - Michael Orth
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University Hospital, LMU München, Marchioninistrasse 15, 81377, Munich, Germany.
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Editorial to Special Issue "Glioblastoma: Recapitulating the Key Breakthroughs and Future Perspective". Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032548. [PMID: 36768870 PMCID: PMC9917091 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) remains the most common and aggressive malignant primary brain tumor [...].
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