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Wang Y, Zhang J, Yang Y, Liu Z, Sun S, Li R, Zhu H, Li T, Zheng J, Li J, Ma L. Circular RNAs in human diseases. MedComm (Beijing) 2024; 5:e699. [PMID: 39239069 PMCID: PMC11374765 DOI: 10.1002/mco2.699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 07/25/2024] [Accepted: 07/30/2024] [Indexed: 09/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a unique class of RNA molecules formed through back-splicing rather than linear splicing. As an emerging field in molecular biology, circRNAs have garnered significant attention due to their distinct structure and potential functional implications. A comprehensive understanding of circRNAs' functions and potential clinical applications remains elusive despite accumulating evidence of their involvement in disease pathogenesis. Recent research highlights their significant roles in various human diseases, but comprehensive reviews on their functions and applications remain scarce. This review provides an in-depth examination of circRNAs, focusing first on their involvement in non-neoplastic diseases such as respiratory, endocrine, metabolic, musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and renal disorders. We then explore their roles in tumors, with particular emphasis on exosomal circular RNAs, which are crucial for cancer initiation, progression, and resistance to treatment. By detailing their biogenesis, functions, and impact on disease mechanisms, this review underscores the potential of circRNAs as diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets. The review not only enhances our understanding of circRNAs' roles in specific diseases and tumor types but also highlights their potential as novel diagnostic and therapeutic tools, thereby paving the way for future clinical investigations and potential therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyong Wang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery Tangdu Hospital Air Force Medical University Xi'an China
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education) The First Department of Thoracic Surgery Peking University Cancer Hospital and Institute Peking University School of Oncology Beijing China
| | - Jin Zhang
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine Tangdu Hospital Air Force Medical University Xi'an China
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment in Shaanxi Province Xi'an China
| | - Yuchen Yang
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine Tangdu Hospital Air Force Medical University Xi'an China
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment in Shaanxi Province Xi'an China
| | - Zhuofeng Liu
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine The Third Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Medical University Xi'an China
| | - Sijia Sun
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine Tangdu Hospital Air Force Medical University Xi'an China
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment in Shaanxi Province Xi'an China
| | - Rui Li
- Department of Epidemiology School of Public Health Air Force Medical University Xi'an China
| | - Hui Zhu
- Department of Anatomy Medical College of Yan'an University Yan'an China
- Institute of Medical Research Northwestern Polytechnical University Xi'an China
| | - Tian Li
- School of Basic Medicine Fourth Military Medical University Xi'an China
| | - Jin Zheng
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine Tangdu Hospital Air Force Medical University Xi'an China
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment in Shaanxi Province Xi'an China
| | - Jie Li
- Department of Endocrine Xijing 986 Hospital Air Force Medical University Xi'an China
| | - Litian Ma
- Department of Thoracic Surgery Tangdu Hospital Air Force Medical University Xi'an China
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine Tangdu Hospital Air Force Medical University Xi'an China
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine Tumor Diagnosis and Treatment in Shaanxi Province Xi'an China
- Department of Gastroenterology Tangdu Hospital Air Force Medical University Xi'an China
- School of Medicine Northwest University Xi'an China
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2
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Liu W, Sun Y, Huo Y, Zhang L, Zhang N, Yang M. Circular RNAs in lung cancer: implications for preventing therapeutic resistance. EBioMedicine 2024; 107:105309. [PMID: 39191172 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2024.105309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2024] [Revised: 08/11/2024] [Accepted: 08/12/2024] [Indexed: 08/29/2024] Open
Abstract
LC is one of the most common malignant tumours that often presents with no distinct symptoms in the early stages, leading to late diagnoses when patients are at an advanced stage and no longer suitable for surgical treatment. Although adjuvant treatments are available, patients frequently develop tolerance to these treatments over time, resulting in poor prognoses for patients with advanced LC. Recently, circular RNAs (circRNAs), a type of non-coding RNA, have gained significant attention in LC research. Owing to their unique circular structure, circRNAs are highly stable within cells. This review systematically summarises the expression, characteristics, biological functions, and molecular regulatory mechanisms of circRNAs involved in therapy resistance as well as the potential applications in early diagnosis and gene targeting therapy in LC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjuan Liu
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Precision Oncology, Cancer Research Center, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, 250117, China; School of Life Sciences, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Taian, 271021, Shandong Province, China
| | - Yawen Sun
- Department of Scientific Research and Education, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, 250117, China
| | - Yanfei Huo
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Precision Oncology, Cancer Research Center, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, 250117, China
| | - Long Zhang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Precision Oncology, Cancer Research Center, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, 250117, China
| | - Nasha Zhang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Jinan, Shandong Province, China; Jiangsu Key Lab of Cancer Biomarkers, Prevention and Treatment, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Personalized Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Ming Yang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Precision Oncology, Cancer Research Center, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, 250117, China; School of Life Sciences, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Taian, 271021, Shandong Province, China; Jiangsu Key Lab of Cancer Biomarkers, Prevention and Treatment, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Personalized Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China.
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Li L, Liu D, Chen T, Wei C, Qiao Y, Liu W, Liang Y, Liang Z, Chen C, Li D, Wu B, Zhao X, Huang D, Wu D. Hypoxia-enhanced YAP1-EIF4A3 interaction drives circ_0007386 circularization by competing with CRIM1 pre-mRNA linear splicing and promotes non-small cell lung cancer progression. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2024; 43:200. [PMID: 39030638 PMCID: PMC11264895 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-024-03116-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2024] [Accepted: 07/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/21/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The progression of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is significantly influenced by circular RNAs (circRNAs), especially in tumor hypoxia microenvironment. However, the precise functions and underlying mechanisms of dysregulated circRNAs in NSCLC remain largely unexplored. METHODS Differentially expressed circRNAs in NSCLC tissues were identified through high-throughput RNA sequencing. The characteristics of circ_0007386 were rigorously confirmed via Sanger sequencing, RNase R treatment and actinomycin D treatment. The effects of circ_0007386 on proliferation and apoptosis were investigated using CCK8, cloning formation assays, TUNEL staining, and flow cytometry assays in vitro. In vivo, xenograft tumor models were used to evaluate its impact on proliferation. Mechanistically, the regulatory relationships of circ_0007386, miR-383-5p and CIRBP were examined through dual luciferase reporter assays and rescue experiments. Additionally, we detected the binding of EIF4A3 to CRIM1 pre-mRNA by RNA immunoprecipitation and the interaction between YAP1 and EIF4A3 under hypoxic conditions by co-immunoprecipitation. RESULTS Our investigation revealed a novel circRNA, designated as circ_0007386, that was upregulated in NSCLC tissues and cell lines. Circ_0007386 modulated proliferation and apoptosis in NSCLC both in vitro and in vivo. Functionally, circ_0007386 acted as a sponge for miR-383-5p, targeting CIRBP, which influenced NSCLC cell proliferation and apoptosis via the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Furthermore, under hypoxic conditions, the interaction between YAP1 and EIF4A3 was enhanced, leading to the displacement of EIF4A4 from binding to CRIM1 pre-mRNA. This facilitated the back-splicing of CRIM1 pre-mRNA, increasing the formation of circ_0007386. The circ_0007386/miR-383-5p/CIRBP axis was significantly associated with the clinical features and prognosis of NSCLC patients. CONCLUSIONS Circ_0007386, regulated by YAP1-EIF4A3 interaction under hypoxia conditions, plays an oncogenic role in NSCLC progression via the miR-383-5p/CIRBP axis.
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MESH Headings
- Humans
- Carcinoma, Non-Small-Cell Lung/genetics
- Carcinoma, Non-Small-Cell Lung/metabolism
- Carcinoma, Non-Small-Cell Lung/pathology
- RNA, Circular/genetics
- RNA, Circular/metabolism
- Lung Neoplasms/genetics
- Lung Neoplasms/metabolism
- Lung Neoplasms/pathology
- Animals
- YAP-Signaling Proteins/metabolism
- Mice
- Disease Progression
- Eukaryotic Initiation Factor-4A/metabolism
- Eukaryotic Initiation Factor-4A/genetics
- Transcription Factors/metabolism
- Transcription Factors/genetics
- Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing/metabolism
- Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing/genetics
- Female
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Proliferation
- RNA Precursors/metabolism
- RNA Precursors/genetics
- Male
- RNA Splicing
- Apoptosis
- MicroRNAs/genetics
- MicroRNAs/metabolism
- Mice, Nude
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic
- DEAD-box RNA Helicases
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Affiliation(s)
- Lixia Li
- Cancer Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Dewei Liu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, 524000, China
| | - Tingting Chen
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, 524000, China
| | - Chunhui Wei
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, 524000, China
| | - Youping Qiao
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, 524000, China
| | - Weiliang Liu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, 524000, China
| | - Yanmei Liang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, 524000, China
| | - Zhu Liang
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Chunyuan Chen
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Dongming Li
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, 524000, China
| | - Bin Wu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, 524000, China
| | - Xuanna Zhao
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, 524000, China.
| | - Dan Huang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, 524000, China.
| | - Dong Wu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Guangdong Medical University, Zhanjiang, 524000, China.
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Ma Y, Wang T, Zhang X, Wang P, Long F. The role of circular RNAs in regulating resistance to cancer immunotherapy: mechanisms and implications. Cell Death Dis 2024; 15:312. [PMID: 38697964 PMCID: PMC11066075 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-024-06698-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Revised: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy has rapidly transformed cancer treatment, yet resistance remains a significant hurdle, limiting its efficacy in many patients. Circular RNAs (circRNAs), a novel class of non-coding RNAs, have emerged as pivotal regulators of gene expression and cellular processes. Increasing evidence indicates their involvement in modulating resistance to cancer immunotherapy. Notably, certain circRNAs function as miRNA sponges or interact with proteins, influencing the expression of immune-related genes, including crucial immune checkpoint molecules. This, in turn, shapes the tumor microenvironment and significantly impacts the response to immunotherapy. In this comprehensive review, we explore the evolving role of circRNAs in orchestrating resistance to cancer immunotherapy, with a specific focus on their mechanisms in influencing immune checkpoint gene expression. Additionally, we underscore the potential of circRNAs as promising therapeutic targets to augment the effectiveness of cancer immunotherapy. Understanding the role of circRNAs in cancer immunotherapy resistance could contribute to the development of new therapeutic strategies to overcome resistance and improve patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Ma
- Department of Clinical Research, Sichuan Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Sichuan Cancer Hospital & Institute, Sichuan Cancer Center, Affiliated Cancer Hospital of University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Ting Wang
- Department of Clinical Research, Sichuan Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Sichuan Cancer Hospital & Institute, Sichuan Cancer Center, Affiliated Cancer Hospital of University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Xudong Zhang
- Department of Clinical Research, Sichuan Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Sichuan Cancer Hospital & Institute, Sichuan Cancer Center, Affiliated Cancer Hospital of University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Pinghan Wang
- Laboratory Medicine Center, Sichuan Provincial Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Affiliated Women's and Children's Hospital of Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, 610032, China
| | - Fangyi Long
- Laboratory Medicine Center, Sichuan Provincial Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Affiliated Women's and Children's Hospital of Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, 610032, China.
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Zhang B, Zhang H, Wang Z, Cao H, Zhang N, Dai Z, Liang X, Peng Y, Wen J, Zhang X, Zhang L, Luo P, Zhang J, Liu Z, Cheng Q, Peng R. The regulatory role and clinical application prospects of circRNA in the occurrence and development of CNS tumors. CNS Neurosci Ther 2024; 30:e14500. [PMID: 37953502 PMCID: PMC11017455 DOI: 10.1111/cns.14500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Central nervous system (CNS) tumors originate from the spinal cord or brain. The study showed that even with aggressive treatment, malignant CNS tumors have high mortality rates. However, CNS tumor risk factors and molecular mechanisms have not been verified. Due to the reasons mentioned above, diagnosis and treatment of CNS tumors in clinical practice are currently fraught with difficulties. Circular RNAs (circRNAs), single-stranded ncRNAs with covalently closed continuous structures, are essential to CNS tumor development. Growing evidence has proved the numeral critical biological functions of circRNAs for disease progression: sponging to miRNAs, regulating gene transcription and splicing, interacting with proteins, encoding proteins/peptides, and expressing in exosomes. AIMS This review aims to summarize current progress regarding the molecular mechanism of circRNA in CNS tumors and to explore the possibilities of clinical application based on circRNA in CNS tumors. METHODS We have summarized studies of circRNA in CNS tumors in Pubmed. RESULTS This review summarized their connection with CNS tumors and their functions, biogenesis, and biological properties. Furthermore, we introduced current advances in clinical RNA-related technologies. Then we discussed the diagnostic and therapeutic potential (especially for immunotherapy, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy) of circRNA in CNS tumors in the context of the recent advanced research and application of RNA in clinics. CONCLUSIONS CircRNA are increasingly proven to participate in decveloping CNS tumors. An in-depth study of the causal mechanisms of circRNAs in CNS tomor progression will ultimately advance their implementation in the clinic and developing new strategies for preventing and treating CNS tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
| | - Hao Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated HospitalChongqing Medical UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Zeyu Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
- MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Regeneration and RepairUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Hui Cao
- Department of Psychiatry, The School of Clinical MedicineHunan University of Chinese MedicineChangshaChina
| | - Nan Zhang
- College of Life Science and TechnologyHuazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
| | - Ziyu Dai
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
| | - Xisong Liang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
| | - Yun Peng
- Teaching and Research Section of Clinical NursingXiangya Hospital of Central South UniversityChangshaChina
- Department of Geriatrics, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
| | - Jie Wen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
| | - Xun Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
| | - Liyang Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
| | - Peng Luo
- Department of Oncology, Zhujiang HospitalSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Jian Zhang
- Department of Oncology, Zhujiang HospitalSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Zaoqu Liu
- Department of Interventional RadiologyThe First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou UniversityZhengzhouChina
| | - Quan Cheng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
| | - Renjun Peng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaChina
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He H, Li T. Hsa_circ_0000190 Promotes NSCLC Cell Resistance to Cisplatin via the Modulation of the miR-1253/IL-6 Axis. Anal Cell Pathol (Amst) 2024; 2024:6647810. [PMID: 38440120 PMCID: PMC10911877 DOI: 10.1155/2024/6647810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Revised: 12/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 03/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Background This study explored the mechanistic basis for nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cisplatin (DDP) treatment resistance in an effort to define effective approaches to abrogating the emergence of such chemoresistance. Methods Analyses of NSCLC expression of hsa_circ_0000190, miR-1253, and interleukin 6 (IL-6) were conducted via a quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) approach, while the ability of these tumor cells to resist DDP treatment was evaluated with a CCK-8 assay. Interactions between different RNA molecules were assessed using both RNA immunoprecipitation and dual-luciferase reporter assays. Results NSCLC cell lines and tissues resistant to DDP were found to express higher levels of hsa_circ_0000190, and knocking down this circRNA in NSCLC cells was associated with greater sensitivity to DDP exposure. Further research identified miR-1253 as a hsa_circ_0000190 target, with the ability of hsa_circ_0000190 knockdown to restore DDP sensitivity being largely attributable to the ability of this circRNA to suppress miR-1253 activity. IL-6 was identified as a major miR-1253 target in this context, with miR-1253 regulating chemoresistance in NSCLC cells in part by preventing IL-6 upregulation. Conclusion Together, these data suggest that hsa_circ_0000190 can promote DDP chemoresistance in NSCLC cells through its ability to modulate miR-1253/IL-6 axis activity, highlighting a novel pathway that can be targeted in an effort to guide the more effective diagnosis and management of DDP-resistant tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua He
- Department of Respiratory, Nanjing Chest Hospital, Affiliated Nanjing Brain Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, No. 215, Guangzhou Road, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Tian Li
- Department of Respiratory, Nanjing Chest Hospital, Affiliated Nanjing Brain Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, No. 215, Guangzhou Road, Nanjing 210029, China
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Wang S, Xiong Y, Zhang Y, Wang H, Chen M, Li J, Luo P, Luo YH, Hecht M, Frey B, Gaipl U, Li X, Zhao Q, Ma H, Zhou JG. TCCIA: a comprehensive resource for exploring CircRNA in cancer immunotherapy. J Immunother Cancer 2024; 12:e008040. [PMID: 38212124 PMCID: PMC10806567 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2023-008040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Immunotherapies targeting immune checkpoints have gained increasing attention in cancer treatment, emphasizing the need for predictive biomarkers. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) have emerged as critical regulators of tumor immunity, particularly in the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway, and have shown potential in predicting immunotherapy efficacy. Yet, the detailed roles of circRNAs in cancer immunotherapy are not fully understood. While existing databases focus on either circRNA profiles or immunotherapy cohorts, there is currently no platform that enables the exploration of the intricate interplay between circRNAs and anti-tumor immunotherapy. A comprehensive resource combining circRNA profiles, immunotherapy responses, and clinical outcomes is essential to advance our understanding of circRNA-mediated tumor-immune interactions and to develop effective biomarkers. METHODS To address these gaps, we constructed The Cancer CircRNA Immunome Atlas (TCCIA), the first database that combines circRNA profiles, immunotherapy response data, and clinical outcomes across multicancer types. The construction of TCCIA involved applying standardized preprocessing to the raw sequencing FASTQ files, characterizing circRNA profiles using an ensemble approach based on four established circRNA detection tools, analyzing tumor immunophenotypes, and compiling immunotherapy response data from diverse cohorts treated with immune checkpoint blockades (ICBs). RESULTS TCCIA encompasses over 4,000 clinical samples obtained from 25 cohorts treated with ICBs along with other treatment modalities. The database provides researchers and clinicians with a cloud-based platform that enables interactive exploration of circRNA data in the context of ICB. The platform offers a range of analytical tools, including browse of identified circRNAs, visualization of circRNA abundance and correlation, association analysis between circRNAs and clinical variables, assessment of the tumor immune microenvironment, exploration of tumor molecular signatures, evaluation of treatment response or prognosis, and identification of altered circRNAs in immunotherapy-sensitive and resistant tumors. To illustrate the utility of TCCIA, we showcase two examples, including circTMTC3 and circMGA, by employing analysis of large-scale melanoma and bladder cancer cohorts, which unveil distinct impacts and clinical implications of different circRNA expression in cancer immunotherapy. CONCLUSIONS TCCIA represents a significant advancement over existing resources, providing a comprehensive platform to investigate the role of circRNAs in immuno-oncology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shixiang Wang
- Department of Oncology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People's Republic of China
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Diagnosis and Therapy, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi Xiong
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, People's Republic of China
- Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Brain Tumor Research, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, People's Republic of China
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, People's Republic of China
| | - Yihao Zhang
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, People's Republic of China
- Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Brain Tumor Research, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, People's Republic of China
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, People's Republic of China
| | - Haitao Wang
- Center for Precision Medicine Research and Training, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macau SAR, People's Republic of China
| | - Minjun Chen
- Department of Oncology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People's Republic of China
| | - Jianfeng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Genomics, Shanghai Institute of Hematology, National Research Center for Translational Medicine, Rui-Jin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Peng Luo
- Department of Oncology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yung-Hung Luo
- Department of Chest Medicine, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
- School of Medicine, College of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Markus Hecht
- Department of Radiotherapy and Radiation Oncology, Saarland University Medical Center, Homburg, Germany
| | - Benjamin Frey
- Translational Radiobiology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen-EMN, Erlangen, Germany
- FAU Profile Center Immunomedicine (FAU I-MED), Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Udo Gaipl
- Translational Radiobiology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen-EMN, Erlangen, Germany
- FAU Profile Center Immunomedicine (FAU I-MED), Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Xuejun Li
- Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, People's Republic of China
- Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Brain Tumor Research, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, People's Republic of China
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, People's Republic of China
| | - Qi Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Diagnosis and Therapy, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Hu Ma
- Department of Oncology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People's Republic of China
| | - Jian-Guo Zhou
- Department of Oncology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People's Republic of China
- Translational Radiobiology, Department of Radiation Oncology, Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Erlangen-EMN, Erlangen, Germany
- FAU Profile Center Immunomedicine (FAU I-MED), Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
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Meng L, Wu H, Wu J, Ding P, He J, Sang M, Liu L. Mechanisms of immune checkpoint inhibitors: insights into the regulation of circular RNAS involved in cancer hallmarks. Cell Death Dis 2024; 15:3. [PMID: 38177102 PMCID: PMC10766988 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-023-06389-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Revised: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
Current treatment strategies for cancer, especially advanced cancer, are limited and unsatisfactory. One of the most substantial advances in cancer therapy, in the last decades, was the discovery of a new layer of immunotherapy approach, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), which can specifically activate immune cells by targeting immune checkpoints. Immune checkpoints are a type of immunosuppressive molecules expressed on immune cells, which can regulate the degree of immune activation and avoid autoimmune responses. ICIs, such as anti-PD-1/PD-L1 drugs, has shown inspiring efficacy and broad applicability across various cancers. Unfortunately, not all cancer patients benefit remarkably from ICIs, and the overall response rates to ICIs remain relatively low for most cancer types. Moreover, the primary and acquired resistance to ICIs pose serious challenges to the clinical application of cancer immunotherapy. Thus, a deeper understanding of the molecular biological properties and regulatory mechanisms of immune checkpoints is urgently needed to improve clinical options for current therapies. Recently, circular RNAs (circRNAs) have attracted increasing attention, not only due to their involvement in various aspects of cancer hallmarks, but also for their impact on immune checkpoints in shaping the tumor immune microenvironment. In this review, we systematically summarize the current status of immune checkpoints in cancer and the existing regulatory roles of circRNAs on immune checkpoints. Meanwhile, we also aim to settle the issue in an evidence-oriented manner that circRNAs involved in cancer hallmarks regulate the effects and resistance of ICIs by targeting immune checkpoints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingjiao Meng
- Department of Tumor Immunotherapy, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, 050035, China
- Research Center and Tumor Research Institute, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, 050017, China
| | - Haotian Wu
- The Third Department of Surgery, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, 050011, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Comprehensive Treatment of Gastric Cancer, Shijiazhuang, 050011, China
| | - Jiaxiang Wu
- The Third Department of Surgery, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, 050011, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Comprehensive Treatment of Gastric Cancer, Shijiazhuang, 050011, China
| | - Ping'an Ding
- The Third Department of Surgery, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, 050011, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Comprehensive Treatment of Gastric Cancer, Shijiazhuang, 050011, China
| | - Jinchen He
- The Third Department of Surgery, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, 050011, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Comprehensive Treatment of Gastric Cancer, Shijiazhuang, 050011, China
| | - Meixiang Sang
- Research Center and Tumor Research Institute, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, 050017, China.
- Science and Education Department, Shanghai Electric Power Hospital, Shanghai, 20050, China.
| | - Lihua Liu
- Department of Tumor Immunotherapy, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, 050035, China.
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9
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Han Y, Dong Z, Xing Y, Zhan Y, Zou J, Wang X. Establishment of a prognosis prediction model for lung squamous cell carcinoma related to PET/CT: basing on immunogenic cell death-related lncRNA. BMC Pulm Med 2023; 23:511. [PMID: 38102594 PMCID: PMC10724919 DOI: 10.1186/s12890-023-02792-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Immunogenic cell death (ICD) stimulates adaptive immunity and holds significant promise in cancer therapy. Nevertheless, the influence of ICD-associated long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) on the prognosis of patients with lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC) remains unexplored. METHODS We employed data from the The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA)database to identify ICD-related lncRNAs associated with the prognosis of LUSC using univariate Cox regression analysis. Subsequently, we utilized the LOSS regression model to construct a predictive risk model for assessing the prognosis of LUSC patients based on ICD-related lncRNAs. Our study randomly allocated187 TCGA patients into a training group and 184 patients for testing the predictive model. Furthermore, we conducted quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis on 43 tumor tissues from LUSC patients to evaluate lncRNA expression levelsPearson correlation analysis was utilized to analyze the correlation of risk scores with positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) parameters among LUSC patients. RESULTS The findings from the univariate Cox regression revealed 16 ICD-associated lncRNAs linked to LUSC prognosis, with 12 of these lncRNAs integrated into our risk model utilizing the LOSS regression. Survival analysis indicated a markedly higher overall survival time among patients in the low-risk group compared to those in the high-risk group. The area under the Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve to differentiate high-risk and low-risk patients was 0.688. Additionally, the overall survival rate was superior in the low-risk group compared to the high-risk group. Correlation analysis demonstrated a positive association between the risk score calculated based on the ICD-lncRNA risk model and the maximum standard uptake value (SUVmax) (r = 0.427, P = 0.0043) as well as metabolic volume (MTV)of PET-CT (r = 0.360, P = 0.0177) in 43 LUSC patients. CONCLUSION We have successfully developed a risk model founded on ICD-related lncRNAs that proves effective in predicting the overall survival of LUSC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Han
- Nuclear medicine, Cangzhou Central Hospital, Cangzhou, China
| | - Zhiqiang Dong
- 2nd Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, Cangzhou People's Hospital, Cangzhou, China
| | - Yu Xing
- Nuclear medicine, Cangzhou Central Hospital, Cangzhou, China
| | - Yingying Zhan
- Nuclear medicine, Cangzhou Central Hospital, Cangzhou, China
| | - Jinhai Zou
- Nuclear medicine, Cangzhou Central Hospital, Cangzhou, China.
| | - Xiaodong Wang
- Department of Pathology, Zhangjiakou Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine Hospital, Zhangjiakou, China
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10
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Pedraz-Valdunciel C, Ito M, Giannoukakos S, Giménez-Capitán A, Molina-Vila MÁ, Rosell R. Brief Report: circRUNX1 as Potential Biomarker for Cancer Recurrence in EGFR Mutation-Positive Surgically Resected NSCLC. JTO Clin Res Rep 2023; 4:100604. [PMID: 38162176 PMCID: PMC10757026 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtocrr.2023.100604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction As recently evidenced by the ADAURA trial, most patients with stages IB to IIIA of resected EGFR-mutant lung adenocarcinoma benefit from osimertinib as adjuvant therapy. Nevertheless, predictive markers of response and recurrence are still an unmet need for more than 10% of these patients. Some circular RNAs (circRNAs) have been reported to play a role in tumor growth and proliferation. In this project, we studied circRNA expression levels in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded lung tumor samples to explore their biomarker potential and develop a machine learning (ML)-based signature that could predict the benefit of adjuvant EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors in patients with EGFR-mutant NSCLC. Methods Patients with surgically resected EGFR mutant-positive, stages I to IIIB NSCLC were recruited from February 2007 to December 2015. Formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tumor samples were retrospectively collected from those patients with a follow-up period of more than or equal to 36 months (N = 76). Clinicopathologic features were annotated. Total RNA was purified and quantified prior nCounter processing with our circRNA custom panel. Data analysis and ML were performed taking into consideration circRNA expression levels and recurrence-free survival (RFS). RFS was defined from the day of surgery to the day when recurrence was detected radiologically or the death owing to any cause. Results Of the 76 patients with EGFR mutation-positive NSCLC included in the study, 34 relapsed within 3 years after resection. The median age of the relapsing cohort was 71.5 (range: 49-89) years. Most patients were nonsmokers (n = 21; 61.8%) and of female sex (n = 21; 61.8%). Most cases (n = 17; 50%) presented an exon 21 mutation, whereas 15 and four patients had an exon 19 and exon 18 mutation, respectively. Differential expression analysis revealed that circRUNX1, along with circFUT8 and circAASDH, was up-regulated in relapsing patients (p < 0.05 and >2 fold-change). A ML-based circRNA signature predictive of recurrence in patients with EGFR mutation-positive NSCLC, comprising circRUNX1, was developed. Our final model including selected 6-circRNA signature with random forest algorithm was able to classify relapsing patients with an accuracy of 83% and an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.91.RFS was significantly shorter not only for the subgroup of patients with high versus low circRUNX1 expression but also for the group classified as recurrent by the ML circRNA signature when compared with those classified as nonrecurrent. Conclusions Our findings suggest that circRUNX1 and the presented ML-developed signature could be novel tools to predict the benefit of adjuvant EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors with regard to RFS in patients with EGFR-mutant NSCLC. The training and validation phases of our ML signature will be conducted including bigger independent cohorts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Masaoki Ito
- Research Institute for Radiation Biology and Medicine, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan
| | | | | | | | - Rafael Rosell
- Pangaea Oncology, Dexeus University Hospital, Barcelona, Spain
- Germans Trias i Pujol Health Sciences Institute and Hospital (IGTP), Badalona, Spain
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11
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Liu W, Zuo B, Liu W, Huo Y, Zhang N, Yang M. Long non-coding RNAs in non-small cell lung cancer: implications for preventing therapeutic resistance. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2023; 1878:188982. [PMID: 37734560 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2023.188982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
Lung cancer has the highest mortality and morbidity rates among all cancers worldwide. Despite many complex treatment options, including radiotherapy, chemotherapy, targeted drugs, immunotherapy, and combinations of these treatments, efficacy is low in cases of resistance to therapy, metastasis, and advanced disease, contributing to low overall survival. There is a pressing need for the discovery of novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets for the early diagnosis of lung cancer and to determine the efficacy and outcomes of drug treatments. There is now substantial evidence for the diagnostic and prognostic value of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs). This review briefly discusses recent findings on the roles and mechanisms of action of lncRNAs in the responses to therapy in non-small cell lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjuan Liu
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, Cancer Research Center, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong Province 250117, China
| | - Bingli Zuo
- Human Resources Department, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong Province 250117, China
| | - Wenting Liu
- Department of Neurology, Weifang People's Hospital, Weifang, Shandong Province 261041, China
| | - Yanfei Huo
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, Cancer Research Center, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong Province 250117, China
| | - Nasha Zhang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong Province 250117, China; Jiangsu Key Lab of Cancer Biomarkers, Prevention and Treatment, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Personalized Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province 211166, China.
| | - Ming Yang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, Cancer Research Center, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong Province 250117, China; Jiangsu Key Lab of Cancer Biomarkers, Prevention and Treatment, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Personalized Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province 211166, China.
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12
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Ning J, Luo Y, Chen L, Xiao G, Tanzhu G, Zhou R. CircRNAs and lung cancer: Insight into their roles in metastasis. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 166:115260. [PMID: 37633056 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/30/2023] [Indexed: 08/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. A major contributing factor to the poor survival rates in lung cancer is the high prevalence of metastasis at the time of diagnosis. To address this critical issue, it is imperative to investigate the mechanisms underlying lung cancer metastasis. Circular RNAs (circRNAs), a distinct type of ribonucleic acid characterized by their unique circular structure, have been implicated in the progression of various diseases. Recent studies have highlighted the close association between circRNAs and the occurrence and development of lung cancer, particularly in relation to metastasis. In this review, we provide a concise overview of the expression patterns and prognostic significance of circRNAs in lung cancer. Additionally, we summarized the current understanding of the clinical relevance of circRNAs in lung cancer metastasis. Furthermore, we systematically focused on the roles of circRNAs in each step of lung cancer metastasis, reflecting the sequential progression of this process. Notably, circRNAs exhibit dual functionality in lung cancer metastasis, acting both as facilitators and inhibitors of metastatic processes. Given their potential, circRNAs hold promise as novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets for lung cancer metastasis, warranting further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaoyang Ning
- Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China
| | - Yi Luo
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Center of Coronary Circulation, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha 410008, China
| | - Liu Chen
- Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China
| | - Gang Xiao
- Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China
| | - Guilong Tanzhu
- Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China.
| | - Rongrong Zhou
- Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Xiangya Lung Cancer Center, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, Hunan Province, China.
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13
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Zhang J, Liu S, Chen X, Xu X, Xu F. Non-immune cell components in tumor microenvironment influencing lung cancer Immunotherapy. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 166:115336. [PMID: 37591126 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer (LC) is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide, with a significant morbidity and mortality rate, endangering human life and health. The introduction of immunotherapies has significantly altered existing cancer treatment strategies and is expected to improve immune responses, objective response rates, and survival rates. However, a better understanding of the complex immunological networks of LC is required to improve immunotherapy efficacy further. Tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) and tumor-specific antigens (TSAs) are significantly expressed by LC cells, which activate dendritic cells, initiate antigen presentation, and activate lymphocytes to exert antitumor activity. However, as tumor cells combat the immune system, an immunosuppressive microenvironment forms, enabling the enactment of a series of immunological escape mechanisms, including the recruitment of immunosuppressive cells and induction of T cell exhaustion to decrease the antitumor immune response. In addition to the direct effect of LC cells on immune cell function, the secreting various cytokines, chemokines, and exosomes, changes in the intratumoral microbiome and the function of cancer-associated fibroblasts and endothelial cells contribute to LC cell immune escape. Accordingly, combining various immunotherapies with other therapies can elicit synergistic effects based on the complex immune network, improving immunotherapy efficacy through multi-target action on the tumor microenvironment (TME). Hence, this review provides guidance for understanding the complex immune network in the TME and designing novel and effective immunotherapy strategies for LC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingtao Zhang
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250014, China
| | - Shuai Liu
- Central Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250014, China
| | - Xiubao Chen
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250014, China
| | - Xiangdong Xu
- Central Laboratory, Affiliated Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250014, China.
| | - Fei Xu
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250014, China; First Clinical Medical College, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250014, China.
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14
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Wang M, Yu F, Li P. Noncoding RNAs as an emerging resistance mechanism to immunotherapies in cancer: basic evidence and therapeutic implications. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1268745. [PMID: 37767098 PMCID: PMC10520974 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1268745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/30/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The increasing knowledge in the field of oncoimmunology has led to extensive research into tumor immune landscape and a plethora of clinical immunotherapy trials in cancer patients. Immunotherapy has become a clinically beneficial alternative to traditional treatments by enhancing the power of the host immune system against cancer. However, it only works for a minority of cancers. Drug resistance continues to be a major obstacle to the success of immunotherapy in cancer. A fundamental understanding of the detailed mechanisms underlying immunotherapy resistance in cancer patients will provide new potential directions for further investigations of cancer treatment. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are tightly linked with cancer initiation and development due to their critical roles in gene expression and epigenetic modulation. The clear appreciation of the role of ncRNAs in tumor immunity has opened new frontiers in cancer research and therapy. Furthermore, ncRNAs are increasingly acknowledged as a key factor influencing immunotherapeutic treatment outcomes. Here, we review the available evidence on the roles of ncRNAs in immunotherapy resistance, with an emphasis on the associated mechanisms behind ncRNA-mediated immune resistance. The clinical implications of immune-related ncRNAs are also discussed, shedding light on the potential ncRNA-based therapies to overcome the resistance to immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Man Wang
- Institute for Translational Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, College of Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | | | - Peifeng Li
- Institute for Translational Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, College of Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
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15
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Jo H, Shim K, Jeoung D. Exosomes: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Implications in Cancer. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15051465. [PMID: 37242707 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15051465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are a subset of extracellular vesicles produced by all cells, and they are present in various body fluids. Exosomes play crucial roles in tumor initiation/progression, immune suppression, immune surveillance, metabolic reprogramming, angiogenesis, and the polarization of macrophages. In this work, we summarize the mechanisms of exosome biogenesis and secretion. Since exosomes may be increased in the cancer cells and body fluids of cancer patients, exosomes and exosomal contents can be used as cancer diagnostic and prognostic markers. Exosomes contain proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. These exosomal contents can be transferred into recipient cells. Therefore, this work details the roles of exosomes and exosomal contents in intercellular communications. Since exosomes mediate cellular interactions, exosomes can be targeted for developing anticancer therapy. This review summarizes current studies on the effects of exosomal inhibitors on cancer initiation and progression. Since exosomal contents can be transferred, exosomes can be modified to deliver molecular cargo such as anticancer drugs, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), and micro RNAs (miRNAs). Thus, we also summarize recent advances in developing exosomes as drug delivery platforms. Exosomes display low toxicity, biodegradability, and efficient tissue targeting, which make them reliable delivery vehicles. We discuss the applications and challenges of exosomes as delivery vehicles in tumors, along with the clinical values of exosomes. In this review, we aim to highlight the biogenesis, functions, and diagnostic and therapeutic implications of exosomes in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyein Jo
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Natural Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyeonghee Shim
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Natural Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
| | - Dooil Jeoung
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Natural Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea
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16
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J Saadh M, Abedi Kiasari B, Shahrtash SA, Arias-Gonzáles JL, Chaitanya M, Cotrina-Aliaga JC, Kadham MJ, Sârbu I, Akhavan-Sigari R. Exosomal non-coding RNAs' role in immune regulation and potential therapeutic applications. Pathol Res Pract 2023; 247:154522. [PMID: 37201467 DOI: 10.1016/j.prp.2023.154522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Revised: 05/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Exosomes are now significant players in both healthy and unhealthy cell-to-cell communication. Exosomes can mediate immune activation or immunosuppression, which can influence the growth of tumors. Exosomes affect the immune responses to malignancies in various ways by interacting with tumor cells and the environment around them. Exosomes made by immune cells can control the growth, metastasis, and even chemosensitivity of tumor cells. In contrast, exosomes produced by cancer cells can encourage immune responses that support the tumor. Exosomes carry circular RNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and microRNAs (miRNAs), all involved in cell-to-cell communication. In this review, we focus on the most recent findings concerning the role of exosomal miRNAs, lncRNAs, and circRNAs in immune modulation and the potential therapeutic implications of these discoveries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed J Saadh
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Middle East University, Amman 11831, Jordan; Applied Science Research Center. Applied Science Private University, Amman, Jordan
| | - Bahman Abedi Kiasari
- Virology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed Abbas Shahrtash
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Alborz Campus, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Mvnl Chaitanya
- Department of Pharmacognosy, School of Pharmacy, Lovely professional university Phagwara, Punjab 144001, India
| | | | | | - Ioan Sârbu
- 2nd Department of Surgery - Pediatric Surgery and Orthopedics, "Grigore T. Popa" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 700115 Iași, Romania.
| | - Reza Akhavan-Sigari
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Tuebingen, Germany; Department of Health Care Management and Clinical Research, Collegium Humanum Warsaw Management University Warsaw, Poland
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17
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Yu LL, Xiao Q, Yu B, Lv QL, Liu ZQ, Yin JY. CircRNAs in tumor immunity and immunotherapy: Perspectives from innate and adaptive immunity. Cancer Lett 2023; 564:216219. [PMID: 37146937 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2023.216219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 04/29/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Tumor immunotherapy is a new therapeutic approach that has been evolving in the last decade and has dramatically changed the treatment options for cancer. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) with high stability, tissue-specific and cell-specific expression. There is growing evidence that circRNAs are involved in the regulation of both adaptive and innate immunity. They play important roles in tumor immunotherapy by affecting macrophage, NK and T cell function. The high stability and tissue specificity make them ideal candidate biomarkers for therapeutic effects. CircRNAs also represent one of promising targets or adjuvant for immunotherapy. Investigations in this field progress rapidly and provide essential support for the diagnosis, prognosis and treatment guidance of cancers in the future. In this review, we summarize the role of circRNAs on tumor immunity from the viewpoint of innate and adaptive immunity, and explore the role of circRNAs in tumor immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu-Lu Yu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, PR China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Changsha, 410078, PR China; Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, 110 Xiangya Road, Changsha, 410078, PR China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha, 410008, Hunan, PR China
| | - Qi Xiao
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, PR China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Changsha, 410078, PR China; Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, 110 Xiangya Road, Changsha, 410078, PR China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha, 410008, Hunan, PR China
| | - Bing Yu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, PR China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Changsha, 410078, PR China; Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, 110 Xiangya Road, Changsha, 410078, PR China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha, 410008, Hunan, PR China
| | - Qiao-Li Lv
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Jiangxi Cancer Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330029, PR China; National Health Commission (NHC) Key Laboratory of Personalized Diagnosis and Treatment of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma, Jiangxi Cancer Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330029, PR China.
| | - Zhao-Qian Liu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, PR China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Changsha, 410078, PR China; Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, 110 Xiangya Road, Changsha, 410078, PR China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha, 410008, Hunan, PR China.
| | - Ji-Ye Yin
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, PR China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Changsha, 410078, PR China; Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of Pharmacogenomics, Ministry of Education, 110 Xiangya Road, Changsha, 410078, PR China; National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, 87 Xiangya Road, Changsha, 410008, Hunan, PR China.
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Zhang Y, Qi W, Wu Y. EIF4A3-induced circular RNA SCAP facilitates tumorigenesis and progression of non-small-cell lung cancer via miR-7/SMAD2 signaling. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:65237-65249. [PMID: 37079240 PMCID: PMC10182944 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-26307-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4A (eIF4A) family determines transcription efficiency by directly binding to precursor RNAs. One member, EIF4A3, modulates the expression of circRNAs. Circular RNA SCAP (circSCAP), a newly found circRNA, has been implicated in atherosclerosis. Yet, how circSCAP regulates cancer development and progression remains understudied. Here, we investigated the function of circSCAP and the molecular mechanism in the tumorigenesis and progression of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). CircSCAP was upregulated in both NSCLC tissues and cell lines and was mainly located in the cytoplasm. CircSCAP expression was promoted by EIF4A3, which was associated with poor prognosis in patients with NSCLC. CircSCAP sponged miR-7 to upregulate small mothers against decapentaplegic 2 (SMAD2). CircSCAP knockdown undermined cell proliferation, migration, and invasion abilities in NSCLC cell lines (SPCA1 and A549), which was rescued by either inhibiting miR-7 or overexpressing SMAD2. Moreover, circSCAP knockdown upregulated E-cadherin, while downregulating N-cadherin, Vimentin, and MMP9 in SPCA1 and A549 cells, which were abolished by either inhibiting miR-7 or overexpressing SMAD2. Additionally, miR-7 was markedly downregulated, whereas SMAD2 was significantly upregulated in NSCLC tissues. MiR-7 expression was inversely correlated with circSCAP and SMAD2 expression in NSCLC tissues. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that circSCAP is significantly upregulated in NSCLC cell lines and tissues and elucidates that circSCAP facilitates NSCLC progression by sponging miR-7 and upregulating SMAD2. The study provides a novel molecular target for early diagnosis and treatment of NSCLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingqing Zhang
- Department of Respiratory, The First Hospital of Jiaxing (Affiliated Hospital of Jiaxing University), Jiaxing, 314000, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
- Jiaxing Key Laboratory of Precision Treatment for Lung Cancer, the First Hospital of Jiaxing (Affiliated Hospital of Jiaxing University), Jiaxing, 314000, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Weibo Qi
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, The First Hospital of Jiaxing (Affiliated Hospital of Jiaxing University), Jiaxing, 314000, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Yonglei Wu
- Department of Respiratory, The First Hospital of Jiaxing (Affiliated Hospital of Jiaxing University), Jiaxing, 314000, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China.
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19
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Regulation of the tumor immune microenvironment by cancer-derived circular RNAs. Cell Death Dis 2023; 14:132. [PMID: 36797245 PMCID: PMC9935907 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-023-05647-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
Circular RNA (circRNAs) is a covalently closed circular non-coding RNA formed by reverse back-splicing from precursor messenger RNA. It is found widely in eukaryotic cells and can be released to the surrounding environment and captured by other cell types. This, circRNAs serve as connections between different cell types for the mediation of multiple signaling pathways. CircRNAs reshape the tumor microenvironment (TME), a key factor involved in all stages of cancer development, by regulating epithelial-stromal transformation, tumor vascularization, immune cell function, and inflammatory responses. Immune cells are the most abundant cellular TME components, and they have profound toxicity to cancer cells. This review summarizes circRNA regulation of immune cells, including T cells, natural killer cells, and macrophages; highlights the impact of circRNAs on tumor progression, treatment, and prognosis; and indicates new targets for tumor immunotherapy.
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20
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Ashrafi A, Akter Z, Modareszadeh P, Modareszadeh P, Berisha E, Alemi PS, Chacon Castro MDC, Deese AR, Zhang L. Current Landscape of Therapeutic Resistance in Lung Cancer and Promising Strategies to Overcome Resistance. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:4562. [PMID: 36230484 PMCID: PMC9558974 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14194562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide with a 5-year survival rate of less than 18%. Current treatment modalities include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy. Despite advances in therapeutic options, resistance to therapy remains a major obstacle to the effectiveness of long-term treatment, eventually leading to therapeutic insensitivity, poor progression-free survival, and disease relapse. Resistance mechanisms stem from genetic mutations and/or epigenetic changes, unregulated drug efflux, tumor hypoxia, alterations in the tumor microenvironment, and several other cellular and molecular alterations. A better understanding of these mechanisms is crucial for targeting factors involved in therapeutic resistance, establishing novel antitumor targets, and developing therapeutic strategies to resensitize cancer cells towards treatment. In this review, we summarize diverse mechanisms driving resistance to chemotherapy, radiotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy, and promising strategies to help overcome this therapeutic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Li Zhang
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA
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21
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Liu Z, Yu X, Xu L, Li Y, Zeng C. Current insight into the regulation of PD-L1 in cancer. Exp Hematol Oncol 2022; 11:44. [PMID: 35907881 PMCID: PMC9338491 DOI: 10.1186/s40164-022-00297-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms underlying cancer immune escape are a core topic in cancer immunology research. Cancer cells can escape T cell-mediated cellular cytotoxicity by exploiting the inhibitory programmed cell-death protein 1 (PD-1)/programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1, CD274) immune checkpoint. Studying the PD-L1 regulatory pattern of tumor cells will help elucidate the molecular mechanisms of tumor immune evasion and improve cancer treatment. Recent studies have found that tumor cells regulate PD-L1 at the transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and post-translational levels and influence the anti-tumor immune response by regulating PD-L1. In this review, we focus on the regulation of PD-L1 in cancer cells and summarize the underlying mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuandi Liu
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Institute of Hematology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, No.601, West Huangpu Avenue, Guangzhou, 510632, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory for Regenerative Medicine of Ministry of Education, Jinan University, 510632, Guangdong, China
| | - Xibao Yu
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Institute of Hematology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, No.601, West Huangpu Avenue, Guangzhou, 510632, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory for Regenerative Medicine of Ministry of Education, Jinan University, 510632, Guangdong, China
| | - Ling Xu
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Institute of Hematology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, No.601, West Huangpu Avenue, Guangzhou, 510632, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory for Regenerative Medicine of Ministry of Education, Jinan University, 510632, Guangdong, China
| | - Yangqiu Li
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Institute of Hematology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, No.601, West Huangpu Avenue, Guangzhou, 510632, Guangzhou, China. .,Key Laboratory for Regenerative Medicine of Ministry of Education, Jinan University, 510632, Guangdong, China.
| | - Chengwu Zeng
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Institute of Hematology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, No.601, West Huangpu Avenue, Guangzhou, 510632, Guangzhou, China. .,Key Laboratory for Regenerative Medicine of Ministry of Education, Jinan University, 510632, Guangdong, China.
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22
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Choi SS, Kim SE, Oh SY, Ahn YH. Clinical Implications of Circulating Circular RNAs in Lung Cancer. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10040871. [PMID: 35453621 PMCID: PMC9028053 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10040871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Revised: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are single-stranded RNAs with a covalently closed-loop structure that increases their stability; thus, they are more advantageous to use as liquid biopsy markers than linear RNAs. circRNAs are thought to be generated by back-splicing of pre-mRNA transcripts, which can be facilitated by reverse complementary sequences in the flanking introns and trans-acting factors, such as splicing regulatory factors and RNA-binding factors. circRNAs function as miRNA sponges, interact with target proteins, regulate the stability and translatability of other mRNAs, regulate gene expression, and produce microproteins. circRNAs are also found in the body fluids of cancer patients, including plasma, saliva, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid, and these “circulating circRNAs” can be used as cancer biomarkers. In lung cancer, some circulating circRNAs have been reported to regulate cancer progression and drug resistance. Circulating circRNAs have significant diagnostic value and are associated with the prognosis of lung cancer patients. Owing to their functional versatility, heightened stability, and practical applicability, circulating circRNAs represent promising biomarkers for lung cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sae Seul Choi
- Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea; (S.S.C.); (S.E.K.)
| | - Sae Eun Kim
- Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea; (S.S.C.); (S.E.K.)
| | - Seon Young Oh
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea;
- Inflammation-Cancer Microenvironment Research Center, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea
| | - Young-Ho Ahn
- Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea; (S.S.C.); (S.E.K.)
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea;
- Inflammation-Cancer Microenvironment Research Center, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-2-6986-6268
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