1
|
Mastella P, Todaro B, Luin S. Nanogels: Recent Advances in Synthesis and Biomedical Applications. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 14:1300. [PMID: 39120405 PMCID: PMC11314474 DOI: 10.3390/nano14151300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2024] [Revised: 07/27/2024] [Accepted: 07/30/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024]
Abstract
In the context of advanced nanomaterials research, nanogels (NGs) have recently gained broad attention for their versatility and promising biomedical applications. To date, a significant number of NGs have been developed to meet the growing demands in various fields of biomedical research. Summarizing preparation methods, physicochemical and biological properties, and recent applications of NGs may be useful to help explore new directions for their development. This article presents a comprehensive overview of the latest NG synthesis methodologies, highlighting advances in formulation with different types of hydrophilic or amphiphilic polymers. It also underlines recent biomedical applications of NGs in drug delivery and imaging, with a short section dedicated to biosafety considerations of these innovative nanomaterials. In conclusion, this article summarizes recent innovations in NG synthesis and their numerous applications, highlighting their considerable potential in the biomedical field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pasquale Mastella
- NEST Laboratory, Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
- Fondazione Pisana per la Scienza ONLUS, Via Ferruccio Giovannini 13, 56017 San Giuliano Terme, PI, Italy
| | - Biagio Todaro
- Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200F, 3001 Leuven, Belgium;
| | - Stefano Luin
- NEST Laboratory, Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
- NEST Laboratory, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Hernández-Parra H, Cortés H, Romero-Montero A, Borbolla-Jiménez FV, Magaña JJ, Del Prado-Audelo ML, Florán B, Leyva-Gómez G. Polymeric nanoparticles decorated with fragmented chitosan as modulation systems for neuronal drug uptake. Carbohydr Polym 2024; 336:122121. [PMID: 38670753 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2024.122121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
This study aimed to modify chitosan (CS) by gamma irradiation and use it as a surface coating of nanoparticles (NPs) fabricated of poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) to create mostly biocompatible nanosystems that can transport drugs to neurons. Gamma irradiation produced irradiated CS (CSγ) with a very low molecular weight (15.2-19.2 kDa). Coating NPs-PLGA with CSγ caused significant changes in their Z potential, making it slightly positive (from -21.7 ± 2.8 mV to +7.1 ± 2.3 mV) and in their particle size (184.4 0.4 ± 7.9 nm to 211.9 ± 14.04 nm). However, these changes were more pronounced in NPs coated with non-irradiated CS (Z potential = +54.0 ± 1.43 mV, size = 348.1 ± 16.44 nm). NPs coated with CSγ presented lower cytotoxicity and similar internalization levels in SH-SY5Y neuronal cells than NPs coated with non-irradiated CS, suggesting higher biocompatibility. Highly biocompatible NPs are desirable as nanocarriers to deliver drugs to the brain, as they help maintain the structure and function of the blood-brain barrier. Therefore, the NPs developed in this study could be evaluated as drug-delivery systems for treating brain diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hector Hernández-Parra
- Departamento de Farmacología, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), Ciudad de México, Mexico; Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico.
| | - Hernán Cortés
- Laboratorio de Medicina Genómica, Departamento de Genómica, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Alejandra Romero-Montero
- Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico
| | - Fabiola V Borbolla-Jiménez
- Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico; Laboratorio de Medicina Genómica, Departamento de Genómica, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Jonathan J Magaña
- Laboratorio de Medicina Genómica, Departamento de Genómica, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra, Ciudad de México, Mexico; Tecnologico de Monterrey, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Campus Ciudad de México, 14380, Mexico.
| | | | - Benjamín Florán
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biofísica y Neurociencias, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico.
| | - Gerardo Leyva-Gómez
- Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Dereje DM, Pontremoli C, García A, Galliano S, Colilla M, González B, Vallet-Regí M, Izquierdo-Barba I, Barbero N. Poly Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid (PLGA) Loaded with a Squaraine Dye as Photosensitizer for Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1962. [PMID: 39065279 PMCID: PMC11281082 DOI: 10.3390/polym16141962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2024] [Revised: 07/02/2024] [Accepted: 07/05/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy (aPDT) is an innovative and promising method for combating infections, reducing the risk of antimicrobial resistance compared to traditional antibiotics. Squaraine (SQ) dyes can be considered promising photosensitizers (PSs) but are generally hydrophobic molecules that can self-aggregate under physiological conditions. To overcome these drawbacks, a possible solution is to incorporate SQs inside nanoparticles (NPs). The present work deals with the design and development of innovative nanophotosensitizers based on poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) NPs incorporating a brominated squaraine (BrSQ) with potential application in aPDT. Two designs of experiments (DoEs) based on the single emulsion and nanoprecipitation methods were set up to investigate how different variables (type of solvent, solvent ratio, concentration of PLGA, stabilizer and dye, sonication power and time) can affect the size, zeta (ζ)-potential, yield, entrapment efficiency, and drug loading capacity of the SQ-PLGA NPs. SQ-PLGA NPs were characterized by NTA, FE-SEM, and UV-Vis spectroscopy and the ability to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) was evaluated, proving that ROS generation ability is preserved in SQ-PLGA. In vitro antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria in planktonic state using Staphylococcus aureus was conducted in different conditions and pH to evaluate the potential of these nanophotosensitizers for aPDT in the local treatment of infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Degnet Melese Dereje
- Department of Chemistry, NIS Interdepartmental and INSTM Reference Centre, University of Torino, Via G. Quarello 15A, 10135 Torino, Italy; (D.M.D.); (C.P.); (S.G.)
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Bahir Dar Institute of Technology, Bahir Dar University, Polypeda 01, Bahir Dar 0026, Ethiopia
| | - Carlotta Pontremoli
- Department of Chemistry, NIS Interdepartmental and INSTM Reference Centre, University of Torino, Via G. Quarello 15A, 10135 Torino, Italy; (D.M.D.); (C.P.); (S.G.)
| | - Ana García
- Department of Chemistry in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Research Institute Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), Plaza Ramón y Cajal s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (A.G.); (M.C.); (B.G.); (M.V.-R.)
- Networking Research Centre on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Spain
| | - Simone Galliano
- Department of Chemistry, NIS Interdepartmental and INSTM Reference Centre, University of Torino, Via G. Quarello 15A, 10135 Torino, Italy; (D.M.D.); (C.P.); (S.G.)
| | - Montserrat Colilla
- Department of Chemistry in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Research Institute Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), Plaza Ramón y Cajal s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (A.G.); (M.C.); (B.G.); (M.V.-R.)
- Networking Research Centre on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Spain
| | - Blanca González
- Department of Chemistry in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Research Institute Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), Plaza Ramón y Cajal s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (A.G.); (M.C.); (B.G.); (M.V.-R.)
- Networking Research Centre on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Spain
| | - María Vallet-Regí
- Department of Chemistry in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Research Institute Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), Plaza Ramón y Cajal s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (A.G.); (M.C.); (B.G.); (M.V.-R.)
- Networking Research Centre on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Spain
| | - Isabel Izquierdo-Barba
- Department of Chemistry in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Research Institute Hospital 12 de Octubre (i+12), Plaza Ramón y Cajal s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (A.G.); (M.C.); (B.G.); (M.V.-R.)
- Networking Research Centre on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Spain
| | - Nadia Barbero
- Department of Chemistry, NIS Interdepartmental and INSTM Reference Centre, University of Torino, Via G. Quarello 15A, 10135 Torino, Italy; (D.M.D.); (C.P.); (S.G.)
- Institute of Science and Technology for Ceramics (ISSMC-CNR), Via Granarolo, 64, 48018 Faenza, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Todaro B, Pesce L, Cardarelli F, Luin S. Pioglitazone Phases and Metabolic Effects in Nanoparticle-Treated Cells Analyzed via Rapid Visualization of FLIM Images. Molecules 2024; 29:2137. [PMID: 38731628 PMCID: PMC11085555 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29092137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2024] [Revised: 04/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) has proven to be a useful method for analyzing various aspects of material science and biology, like the supramolecular organization of (slightly) fluorescent compounds or the metabolic activity in non-labeled cells; in particular, FLIM phasor analysis (phasor-FLIM) has the potential for an intuitive representation of complex fluorescence decays and therefore of the analyzed properties. Here we present and make available tools to fully exploit this potential, in particular by coding via hue, saturation, and intensity the phasor positions and their weights both in the phasor plot and in the microscope image. We apply these tools to analyze FLIM data acquired via two-photon microscopy to visualize: (i) different phases of the drug pioglitazone (PGZ) in solutions and/or crystals, (ii) the position in the phasor plot of non-labelled poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs), and (iii) the effect of PGZ or PGZ-containing NPs on the metabolism of insulinoma (INS-1 E) model cells. PGZ is recognized for its efficacy in addressing insulin resistance and hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus, and polymeric nanoparticles offer versatile platforms for drug delivery due to their biocompatibility and controlled release kinetics. This study lays the foundation for a better understanding via phasor-FLIM of the organization and effects of drugs, in particular, PGZ, within NPs, aiming at better control of encapsulation and pharmacokinetics, and potentially at novel anti-diabetics theragnostic nanotools.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Biagio Todaro
- NEST Laboratory, Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy; (L.P.); (F.C.)
| | - Luca Pesce
- NEST Laboratory, Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy; (L.P.); (F.C.)
| | - Francesco Cardarelli
- NEST Laboratory, Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy; (L.P.); (F.C.)
| | - Stefano Luin
- NEST Laboratory, Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy; (L.P.); (F.C.)
- NEST Laboratory, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Todaro B, Ottalagana E, Luin S, Santi M. Targeting Peptides: The New Generation of Targeted Drug Delivery Systems. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:1648. [PMID: 37376097 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15061648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Peptides can act as targeting molecules, analogously to oligonucleotide aptamers and antibodies. They are particularly efficient in terms of production and stability in physiological environments; in recent years, they have been increasingly studied as targeting agents for several diseases, from tumors to central nervous system disorders, also thanks to the ability of some of them to cross the blood-brain barrier. In this review, we will describe the techniques employed for their experimental and in silico design, as well as their possible applications. We will also discuss advancements in their formulation and chemical modifications that make them even more stable and effective. Finally, we will discuss how their use could effectively help to overcome various physiological problems and improve existing treatments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Biagio Todaro
- NEST Laboratory, Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Elisa Ottalagana
- NEST Laboratory, Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
- Fondazione Pisana per la Scienza, Via Ferruccio Giovannini 13, San Giuliano Terme, 56017 Pisa, Italy
| | - Stefano Luin
- NEST Laboratory, Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR and Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Melissa Santi
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR and Scuola Normale Superiore, Piazza San Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Mostafa MM, Amin MM, Zakaria MY, Hussein MA, Shamaa MM, Abd El-Halim SM. Chitosan Surface-Modified PLGA Nanoparticles Loaded with Cranberry Powder Extract as a Potential Oral Delivery Platform for Targeting Colon Cancer Cells. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15020606. [PMID: 36839928 PMCID: PMC9964659 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15020606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Nutraceutical cranberry powder extract (CBPE) has distinct polyphenols inhibiting colon cancer growth and proliferation. However, its oral therapeutic efficacy is hindered because of its low permeability. This study aims to formulate chitosan surface-modified PLGA nanoparticles (CS-PLGA NPs) for encapsulating CBPE and modulating its release rate, permeation, cell targeting, and, therefore, its cytotoxicity. A full 23 factorial design is employed to scrutinize the effect of lactide/glycolide ratio, PLGA weight, and stabilizer concentrations on entrapment efficiency percentage (EE%), particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential (ZP). The optimum formula (F4) shows spherical particles with a relatively high EE% (72.30 ± 2.86%), an appropriate size of 370.10 ± 10.31 nm, PDI; 0.398 ± 0.001, and ZP; -5.40 ± 0.21 mV. Alongside the ATR-FTIR outcomes, the chitosan surface-modified formula (CS-F4) demonstrates a significant increase in particle size (417.67 ± 6.77 nm) and a shift from negative to positive zeta potential (+21.63 ± 2.46 mV), confirming the efficiency of surface modification with chitosan. The intestinal permeability of F4 and CS-F4 is significantly increased by 2.19- and 3.10-fold, respectively, compared to the CBPE solution, with the permeability coefficient (Papp) being 2.05 × 10-4 cm/min and 2.91 × 10-4 cm/min, for F4 and CS-F4, respectively, compared to the CBPE solution, 9.36 × 10-5 cm/min. Moreover, CS-F4 evidences significant caspase-3 protein level expression stimulation and significant inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT-3) protein expression levels, confirming the superiority of CS-F4 for targeting HT-29 cells. Briefly, CS-PLGA NPs could be regarded as a prosperous delivery system of CBPE with enhanced permeation, cell targeting, and antitumor efficacy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mona M. Mostafa
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, October 6 University, 6th of October City, Giza 12585, Egypt
| | - Maha M. Amin
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo 11562, Egypt
- Correspondence: (M.M.A.); (S.M.A.E.-H.); Tel.: +20-1221602540 (M.M.A.); +20-1119994874 (S.M.A.E.-H.)
| | - Mohamed Y. Zakaria
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Port Said University, Port Said 42526, Egypt
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Salman International University, Ras Sudr 46612, South Sinai, Egypt
| | - Mohammed Abdalla Hussein
- Faculty of Applied Health Sciences Technology, October 6 University, 6th of October City, Giza 12585, Egypt
| | - Marium M. Shamaa
- Biochemistry Department, Clinical and Biological Sciences Division, College of Pharmacy, Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime Transport, Alexandria 1029, Egypt
| | - Shady M. Abd El-Halim
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, October 6 University, 6th of October City, Giza 12585, Egypt
- Correspondence: (M.M.A.); (S.M.A.E.-H.); Tel.: +20-1221602540 (M.M.A.); +20-1119994874 (S.M.A.E.-H.)
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Kumar L, Kukreti G, Rana R, Chaurasia H, Sharma A, Sharma N, Komal. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) Acid (PLGA) Nanoparticles and Transdermal Drug Delivery: An Overview. Curr Pharm Des 2023; 29:2940-2953. [PMID: 38173050 DOI: 10.2174/0113816128275385231027054743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles have garnered pharmaceutical industry attention throughout the past decade. PLGA [Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)] is an excellent biodegradable polymer explored for the preparation of nanoparticles that are administered through various routes like intravenous and transdermal. PLGA's versatility makes it a good choice for the preparation of nanoparticles. OBJECTIVE The main objective of this review paper was to summarize methods of preparation and characterization of PLGA nanoparticles along with their role in the transdermal delivery of various therapeutic agents. METHODS A literature survey for the present review paper was done using various search engines like Pubmed, Google Scholar, and Science Direct. RESULTS In comparison to traditional transdermal administration systems, PLGA nanoparticles have demonstrated several benefits in preclinical investigations, including fewer side effects, low dosage frequency, high skin permeability, and simplicity of application. CONCLUSION PLGA nanoparticles can be considered efficient nanocarriers for the transdermal delivery of drugs. Nevertheless, the clinical investigation of PLGA nanoparticles for the transdermal administration of therapeutic agents remains a formidable obstacle.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lalit Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutics, GNA School of Pharmacy, GNA University, Phagwara, Punjab 144401, India
| | - Gauree Kukreti
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Sardar Bhagwan Singh University, Balawala Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248161, India
| | - Ritesh Rana
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences (Pharmaceutics), Himachal Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (HIPER), Bela-Nadaun, District-Hamirpur, H.P. 177033, India
| | - Himanshu Chaurasia
- Department of Pharmacy, Quantum School of Health Science, Quantum University, Vill. Mandawar (N.H.73) Roorkee-Dehradun Highway, Roorkee, Uttrakhand 247662, India
| | - Anchal Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Shiva Institute of Pharmacy, Chandpur, District-Bilaspur, H.P. 174004, India
| | - Neelam Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences (Pharmacology), Himachal Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (HIPER), Bela-Nadaun, District-Hamirpur, H.P. 177033, India
| | - Komal
- Department of Pharmacology, Chandigarh College of Pharmacy, Landran, Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar, Punjab 140307, India
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Todaro B, Begarani F, Sartori F, Luin S. Is Raman the best strategy towards the development of non-invasive continuous glucose monitoring devices for diabetes management? Front Chem 2022; 10:994272. [PMID: 36226124 PMCID: PMC9548653 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.994272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetes has no well-established cure; thus, its management is critical for avoiding severe health complications involving multiple organs. This requires frequent glycaemia monitoring, and the gold standards for this are fingerstick tests. During the last decades, several blood-withdrawal-free platforms have been being studied to replace this test and to improve significantly the quality of life of people with diabetes (PWD). Devices estimating glycaemia level targeting blood or biofluids such as tears, saliva, breath and sweat, are gaining attention; however, most are not reliable, user-friendly and/or cheap. Given the complexity of the topic and the rise of diabetes, a careful analysis is essential to track scientific and industrial progresses in developing diabetes management systems. Here, we summarize the emerging blood glucose level (BGL) measurement methods and report some examples of devices which have been under development in the last decades, discussing the reasons for them not reaching the market or not being really non-invasive and continuous. After discussing more in depth the history of Raman spectroscopy-based researches and devices for BGL measurements, we will examine if this technique could have the potential for the development of a user-friendly, miniaturized, non-invasive and continuous blood glucose-monitoring device, which can operate reliably, without inter-patient variability, over sustained periods.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Biagio Todaro
- NEST Laboratory, Scuola Normale SuperiorePisa, Italy
- Correspondence: Biagio Todaro, ; Stefano Luin,
| | - Filippo Begarani
- P.B.L. SRL, Solignano, PR, Italy
- Omnidermal Biomedics SRL, Solignano, PR, Italy
| | - Federica Sartori
- P.B.L. SRL, Solignano, PR, Italy
- Omnidermal Biomedics SRL, Solignano, PR, Italy
| | - Stefano Luin
- NEST Laboratory, Scuola Normale SuperiorePisa, Italy
- NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze, CNR, Pisa, Italy
- Correspondence: Biagio Todaro, ; Stefano Luin,
| |
Collapse
|