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Nawrotek K, Chyb M, Gatkowska J, Rudnicka K, Michlewska S, Jóźwiak P. Effect of sodium L-lactate on bioactive properties of chitosan-hydroxyapatite/polycaprolactone conduits for peripheral nerve tissue engineering. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 281:136254. [PMID: 39366606 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.136254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 09/26/2024] [Accepted: 10/01/2024] [Indexed: 10/06/2024]
Abstract
Biomaterials and synthetic polymers have been widely used to replicate the regenerative microenvironment of the peripheral nervous system. Chitosan-based conduits have shown promise in the regeneration of nerve injuries. However, to mimic the regenerative microenvironment, the scaffold structure should possess bioactive properties. This can be achieved by the incorporation of biomolecules (e.g., proteins, peptides) or trophic factors that should preferably be aligned and/or released with controlled kinetics to activate the process of positive axon chemotaxis. In this study, sodium L-lactate has been used to enhance the bioactive properties of chitosan-hydroxyapatite/polycaprolactone electrodeposits. Next, two methods have been developed to incorporate NGF-loaded microspheres - Method 1 involves entrapment and co-deposition of NGF-loaded microspheres, while Method 2 is based on absorption of NGF-loaded microspheres. The study shows that modification of chitosan-hydroxyapatite/polycaprolactone conduits by sodium L-lactate significantly improves their bioactive, biological, and physicochemical properties. The obtained implants are cytocompatible, enhancing the neurite regeneration process by stimulating its elongation. The absorption of NGF-loaded microspheres into the conduit structure may be considered more favorable for the stimulation of axonal elongation compared to entrapment, as it allows for trophic factor dose-dependent controlled release. The developed conduits possess properties essential for the successful treatment of peripheral nerve discontinuities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Nawrotek
- Lodz University of Technology, Faculty of Process and Environmental Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, Wolczanska 213, 93-005 Lodz, Poland; Lodz University of Technology, International Centre for Research on Innovative Bio-based Materials, 2/22 Stefanowskiego, 90-537, Poland; Warsaw University of Technology, Centre for Advanced Materials and Technology (CEZAMAT), 19 Poleczki, 02-822 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Maciej Chyb
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Molecular Microbiology, 12/16 Banacha, 90-237 Lodz, Poland; Bio-Med-Chem Doctoral School of the University of Lodz and Lodz Institutes of the Polish Academy of Sciences Banacha 12/16, 90-237 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Justyna Gatkowska
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Molecular Microbiology, 12/16 Banacha, 90-237 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Karolina Rudnicka
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Immunology and Infectious Biology, 90-237 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Sylwia Michlewska
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Laboratory of Microscopic Imaging and Specialized Biological Techniques, Banacha 12/16, 90-237 Lodz, Poland.
| | - Piotr Jóźwiak
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Invertebrates Zoology and Hydrobiology, Banacha 12/16, 90-324 Lodz, Poland.
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Chen T, Jiang Y, Huang JP, Wang J, Wang ZK, Ding PH. Essential elements for spatiotemporal delivery of growth factors within bio-scaffolds: A comprehensive strategy for enhanced tissue regeneration. J Control Release 2024; 368:97-114. [PMID: 38355052 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2024.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2023] [Revised: 01/28/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
The precise delivery of growth factors (GFs) in regenerative medicine is crucial for effective tissue regeneration and wound repair. However, challenges in achieving controlled release, such as limited half-life, potential overdosing risks, and delivery control complexities, currently hinder their clinical implementation. Despite the plethora of studies endeavoring to accomplish effective loading and gradual release of GFs through diverse delivery methods, the nuanced control of spatial and temporal delivery still needs to be elucidated. In response to this pressing clinical imperative, our review predominantly focuses on explaining the prevalent strategies employed for spatiotemporal delivery of GFs over the past five years. This review will systematically summarize critical aspects of spatiotemporal GFs delivery, including judicious bio-scaffold selection, innovative loading techniques, optimization of GFs activity retention, and stimulating responsive release mechanisms. It aims to identify the persisting challenges in spatiotemporal GFs delivery strategies and offer an insightful outlook on their future development. The ultimate objective is to provide an invaluable reference for advancing regenerative medicine and tissue engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tan Chen
- Stomatology Hospital, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Research of Zhejiang Province, Cancer Center of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Yao Jiang
- Stomatology Hospital, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Research of Zhejiang Province, Cancer Center of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Jia-Ping Huang
- Stomatology Hospital, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Research of Zhejiang Province, Cancer Center of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Stomatology Hospital, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Research of Zhejiang Province, Cancer Center of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Zheng-Ke Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
| | - Pei-Hui Ding
- Stomatology Hospital, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang Provincial Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Research of Zhejiang Province, Cancer Center of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310000, China.
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Zhong Y, Li S, Chen Y, Tang Y, Xiao X, Nie T. Combining PLGA microspheres loaded with Liver X receptor agonist GW3965 with a chitosan nerve conduit can promote the healing and regeneration of the wounded sciatic nerve. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2024; 112:e35378. [PMID: 38356051 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.35378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
Globally, peripheral nerve injury (PNI) is a common clinical issue. Successfully repairing severe PNIs has posed a major challenge for clinicians. GW3965 is a highly selective LXR agonist, and previous studies have demonstrated its positive protective effects in both central and peripheral nerve diseases. In this work, we examined the potential reparative effects of GW3965-loaded polylactic acid co-glycolic acid microspheres in conjunction with a chitosan nerve conduit for peripheral nerve damage. The experiment revealed that GW3965 promoted Schwann cell proliferation and neurotrophic factor release in vitro. In vivo experiments conducted on rats showed that GW3965 facilitated the restoration of motor function, promoted axon and myelin regeneration in the sciatic nerve, and enhanced the microenvironment of nerve regeneration. These results offer a novel therapeutic approach for the healing of nerve damage. Overall, this work provides valuable insights and presents a promising therapeutic strategy for addressing PNI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanwu Zhong
- Orthopedic Hospital, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jiangxi Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Shiqi Li
- Orthopedic Hospital, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jiangxi Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Yanzhen Chen
- Orthopedic Hospital, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jiangxi Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Yuan Tang
- Orthopedic Hospital, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jiangxi Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Xinmao Xiao
- Orthopedic Hospital, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jiangxi Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Tao Nie
- Orthopedic Hospital, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jiangxi Medical College, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
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Casal D, Casimiro MH, Ferreira LM, Leal JP, Rodrigues G, Lopes R, Moura DL, Gonçalves L, Lago JB, Pais D, Santos PMP. Review of Piezoelectrical Materials Potentially Useful for Peripheral Nerve Repair. Biomedicines 2023; 11:3195. [PMID: 38137416 PMCID: PMC10740581 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11123195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2023] [Revised: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
It has increasingly been recognized that electrical currents play a pivotal role in cell migration and tissue repair, in a process named "galvanotaxis". In this review, we summarize the current evidence supporting the potential benefits of electric stimulation (ES) in the physiology of peripheral nerve repair (PNR). Moreover, we discuss the potential of piezoelectric materials in this context. The use of these materials has deserved great attention, as the movement of the body or of the external environment can be used to power internally the electrical properties of devices used for providing ES or acting as sensory receptors in artificial skin (e-skin). The fact that organic materials sustain spontaneous degradation inside the body means their piezoelectric effect is limited in duration. In the case of PNR, this is not necessarily problematic, as ES is only required during the regeneration period. Arguably, piezoelectric materials have the potential to revolutionize PNR with new biomedical devices that range from scaffolds and nerve-guiding conduits to sensory or efferent components of e-skin. However, much remains to be learned regarding piezoelectric materials, their use in manufacturing of biomedical devices, and their sterilization process, to fine-tune their safe, effective, and predictable in vivo application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diogo Casal
- Departamento de Anatomia, NOVA Medical School|Faculdade de Ciências Médicas (NMS|FCM), Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 1169-056 Lisboa, Portugal; (L.G.); (D.P.)
- Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery Department and Burn Unit, Centro Hospitalar Universitário de Lisboa Central, Rua José António Serrano, 1169-045 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Maria Helena Casimiro
- Centro de Ciências e Tecnologias Nucleares (C2TN), Instituto Superior Técnico (IST), Universidade de Lisboa, 2695-066 Bobadela, Portugal; (M.H.C.); (P.M.P.S.)
| | - Luís M. Ferreira
- Departamento de Engenharia e Ciências Nucleares (DECN), Instituto Superior Técnico (IST), Universidade de Lisboa, 2695-066 Bobadela, Portugal;
| | - João Paulo Leal
- Centro de Química Estrutural (CQE), Institute of Molecular Sciences (IMS), Instituto Superior Técnico (IST), Universidade de Lisboa, 2695-066 Bobadela, Portugal;
| | - Gabriela Rodrigues
- Centro de Ecologia, Evolução e Alterações Ambientais (cE3c) & CHANGE—Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa (FCUL), 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal;
| | - Raquel Lopes
- Gynaecology and Obstetrics Department, Maternidade Alfredo da Costa, Centro Hospitalar Universitário de Lisboa Central, R. Viriato 1, 2890-495 Lisboa, Portugal;
| | - Diogo Lino Moura
- Anatomy Institute and Orthopedics Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal;
- Spine Unit, Orthopedics Department, Coimbra University Hospital, 3000-602 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Luís Gonçalves
- Departamento de Anatomia, NOVA Medical School|Faculdade de Ciências Médicas (NMS|FCM), Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 1169-056 Lisboa, Portugal; (L.G.); (D.P.)
| | - João B. Lago
- Departamento de Biologia Animal, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa (FCUL), 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal;
| | - Diogo Pais
- Departamento de Anatomia, NOVA Medical School|Faculdade de Ciências Médicas (NMS|FCM), Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 1169-056 Lisboa, Portugal; (L.G.); (D.P.)
| | - Pedro M. P. Santos
- Centro de Ciências e Tecnologias Nucleares (C2TN), Instituto Superior Técnico (IST), Universidade de Lisboa, 2695-066 Bobadela, Portugal; (M.H.C.); (P.M.P.S.)
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Solomevich SO, Oranges CM, Kalbermatten DF, Schwendeman A, Madduri S. Natural polysaccharides and their derivatives as potential medical materials and drug delivery systems for the treatment of peripheral nerve injuries. Carbohydr Polym 2023; 315:120934. [PMID: 37230605 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2023.120934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Peripheral nerve repair following injury is one of the most serious problems in neurosurgery. Clinical outcomes are often unsatisfactory and associated with a huge socioeconomic burden. Several studies have revealed the great potential of biodegradable polysaccharides for improving nerve regeneration. We review here the promising therapeutic strategies involving different types of polysaccharides and their bio-active composites for promoting nerve regeneration. Within this context, polysaccharide materials widely used for nerve repair in different forms are highlighted, including nerve guidance conduits, hydrogels, nanofibers and films. While nerve guidance conduits and hydrogels were used as main structural scaffolds, the other forms including nanofibers and films were generally used as additional supporting materials. We also discuss the issues of ease of therapeutic implementation, drug release properties and therapeutic outcomes, together with potential future directions of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey O Solomevich
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Research Institute for Physical Chemical Problems of the Belarusian State University, Minsk, Belarus
| | - Carlo M Oranges
- Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery Division, Department of Surgery, Geneva University Hospitals and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Daniel F Kalbermatten
- Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery Division, Department of Surgery, Geneva University Hospitals and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland; Bioengineering and Neuroregeneration Laboratory, Department of Surgery, Geneva University Hospitals and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Anna Schwendeman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA; Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Srinivas Madduri
- Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery Division, Department of Surgery, Geneva University Hospitals and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland; Bioengineering and Neuroregeneration Laboratory, Department of Surgery, Geneva University Hospitals and University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
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6
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Liu C, Liu D, Zhang X, Hui L, Zhao L. Nanofibrous polycaprolactone/amniotic membrane facilitates peripheral nerve regeneration by promoting macrophage polarization and regulating inflammatory microenvironment. Int Immunopharmacol 2023; 121:110507. [PMID: 37356125 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2023.110507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
Appropriate levels of inflammation are an important part of functional repair of nerve damage. However, excessive inflammation can cause the continuous activation of immune inflammatory cells and degeneration of nerve cells. Regulating the temporal and spatial changes in M1/M2 macrophages can regulate the local inflammatory immune environment of the tissue to promote its transformation to a direction conducive to tissue repair.In the present study, a multi-layer multifunctional nanofiber composite membrane of polycaprolactone(PCL) and amniotic membrane (AM) was constructed using electrospinning. In vitro studies have shown that the PCL/AM composite promoted the axon growth of SH-SY5Y cells and induced their differentiation into neurons. The PCL/AM composite wrapped the nerve stump to form a microenvironment that was conducive to nerve regeneration, blocked the invasion of scar tissue, promoted the recruitment of macrophages and moderate polarization to M2, enhanced the expression of anti-inflammatory factors IL-10 and IL-13, inhibited the expression of pro-inflammatory factors IL-6 and TNF-α, and induced myelin sheath and axon regeneration. By releasing various bioactive substances to regulate the polarization of M2 macrophages and formation of anti-inflammatory factors, the PCL/AM composite can enhance axonal regeneration and improve nerve repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunjie Liu
- Xingtai People's Hospital Postdoctoral Workstation, Xingtai People's Hospital, Xingtai 054031, China; Postdoctoral Mobile Station, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang 050017, China; Department of Orthopedics, Tangshan Workers Hospital, Tangshan 063000, China
| | - Dengxiang Liu
- Institute of Cancer Control, Xingtai People's Hospital, Xingtai 054001, China; Xingtai Key Laboratory of Precision Medicine for Liver Cirrhosis and Portal Hypertension, Xingtai People's Hospital, Xingtai 054001, China
| | - Xiaochong Zhang
- Department of Research and Education, Xingtai People's Hospital, Xingtai 054031, China
| | - Limin Hui
- Department of Gynecology, Xingtai People's Hospital, Xingtai 054001, China
| | - Lili Zhao
- Xingtai People's Hospital Postdoctoral Workstation, Xingtai People's Hospital, Xingtai 054031, China; Department of Orthopedics, Xingtai People's Hospital, Xingtai 054031, China.
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Szafulera KJ, Wach RA, Ulański P. Dextran Methacrylate Reactions with Hydroxyl Radicals and Hydrated Electrons in Water: A Kinetic Study Using Pulse Radiolysis. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28104231. [PMID: 37241970 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28104231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Dextran methacrylate (Dex-MA) is a biodegradable polysaccharide derivative that can be cross-linked by ionizing radiation. It is therefore considered a potential replacement for synthetic hydrophilic polymers in current radiation technologies used for synthesizing hydrophilic cross-linked polymer structures such as hydrogels, mainly for medical applications. This work is focused on the initial steps of radiation-induced cross-linking polymerization of Dex-MA in water. Rate constants of two major transient water radiolysis products-hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and hydrated electrons (eaq-)-with various samples of Dex-MA (based on 6-500 kDa dextrans of molar degree of substitution or DS with methacrylate groups up to 0.66) as well as non-substituted dextran were determined by pulse radiolysis with spectrophotometric detection. It has been demonstrated that these rate constants depend on both the molecular weight and DS; reasons for these effects are discussed and reaction mechanisms are proposed. Selected spectral data of the transient species formed by •OH- and eaq--induced reactions are used to support the discussion. The kinetic data obtained in this work and their interpretation are expected to be useful for controlled synthesis of polysaccharide-based hydrogels and nanogels of predefined structure and properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamila J Szafulera
- Institute of Applied Radiation Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Lodz University of Technology, Wroblewskiego 15, 93-590 Lodz, Poland
| | - Radosław A Wach
- Institute of Applied Radiation Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Lodz University of Technology, Wroblewskiego 15, 93-590 Lodz, Poland
| | - Piotr Ulański
- Institute of Applied Radiation Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Lodz University of Technology, Wroblewskiego 15, 93-590 Lodz, Poland
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Huang WC, Lin CC, Chiu TW, Chen SY. 3D Gradient and Linearly Aligned Magnetic Microcapsules in Nerve Guidance Conduits with Remotely Spatiotemporally Controlled Release to Enhance Peripheral Nerve Repair. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:46188-46200. [PMID: 36198117 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c11362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Although numerous strategies have been implemented to develop nerve guidance conduits (NGCs) to treat peripheral nerve injury (PNI), functionalization of an NGC to make it remotely controllable for providing spatiotemporal modulation on in situ nerve tissues remains a challenge. In this study, a gelatin/silk (GS) hydrogel was used to develop an NGC based on its self-owned reversible thermoresponsive sol-to-gel phase transformation ability that permitted rapid three-dimensional (3D) micropatterning of the incorporated nerve growth factor (NGF)-loaded magnetic poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microcapsules (called NGF@MPs) via multiple magnetic guidance. The thermally controllable viscosity of GS enabled the rapid formation of a 3D gradient and linearly aligned distribution of NGF@MPs, leading to magnetically controlled 3D gradient release of NGF to enhance topographical nerve guidance and wound healing in PNIs. Particularly, the as-formed micropatterned hydrogel, called NGF@MPs-GS, showed corrugation topography with a pattern height H of 15 μm, which resulted in the linear axon alignment of more than 90% of cells. In addition, by an external magnetic field, spatiotemporal controllability of NGF release was obtained and permitted neurite elongation that was almost 2-fold longer than that in the group with external addition of NGF. Finally, an NGC prototype was fabricated and implanted into the injured sciatic nerve. The patterned implant, assisted by magnetic stimulation, demonstrated accelerated restoration of motor function within 14 days after implantation. It further contributed to the enhancement of axon outgrowth and remyelination after 28 days. This NGC, with controllable mechanical, biochemical, and topographical cues, is a promising platform for the enhancement of nerve regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Chen Huang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, No. 1001 Ta-Hsueh Road, Hsinchu300093, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Chang Lin
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, No. 1001 Ta-Hsueh Road, Hsinchu300093, Taiwan
| | - Tzai-Wen Chiu
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, No. 1001 Ta-Hsueh Road, Hsinchu300093, Taiwan
| | - San-Yuan Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, No. 1001 Ta-Hsueh Road, Hsinchu300093, Taiwan
- Frontier Research Centre on Fundamental and Applied Sciences of Matters, National Tsing Hua University, No. 101, Section 2, Kuang-Fu Road, Hsinchu300044, Taiwan
- School of Dentistry, College of Dental Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, No.100, Shih-Chuan 1st Road, Kaohsiung80708, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Science, China Medical University, No. 91, Hsueh-Shih Road, Taichung40402, Taiwan
- Medical Device Innovation and Translation Center, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Yangming Campus, No. 155, Section 2, Linong Street, Beitou District, Taipei112304, Taiwan
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