Mechanisms of Cd-induced Cytotoxicity in Normal Human Skin Keratinocytes: Implication for Human Health

Loss of mutant p53 in HaCaT keratinocytes promotes cadmium-induced keratin 17 expression and cell death

BACKGROUND

Cadmium exposure induces dermatotoxicity and epidermal barrier disruption and leads to the development of various pathologies. HaCaT cells are immortalized human keratinocytes that are widely used as alternatives to primary human keratinocytes, particularly for evaluating cadmium toxicity. HaCaT cells bear two gain-of-function (GOF) mutations in the TP53 gene, which strongly affect p53 function. Mutant forms of p53 are known to correlate with increased resistance to various stimuli, including exposure to cytotoxic substances. In addition, keratin 17 (KRT17) was recently shown to be highly expressed in HaCaT cells in response to genotoxic stress. Moreover, p53 is a direct transcriptional repressor of KRT17. However, the impact of TP53 mutations in HaCaT cells on the regulation of cell death and keratin 17 expression is unclear. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the impact of p53 on the response to Cd-induced cytotoxicity.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Employing the MTT assay and Annexin V/propidium iodide staining, we demonstrated that knockout of TP53 leads to a decrease in the sensitivity of HaCaT cells to the cytotoxic effects of cadmium. Specifically, HaCaT cells with TP53 knockout (TP53 KO HaCaT) exhibited cell death at a cadmium concentration of 10 μM or higher, whereas wild-type cells displayed cell death at a concentration of 30 μM. Furthermore, apoptotic cells were consistently detected in TP53 KO HaCaT cells upon exposure to low concentrations of cadmium (10 and 20 μM) but not in wild-type cells. Our findings also indicate that cadmium cytotoxicity is mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS), which were significantly increased only in TP53 knockout cells treated with 30 μM cadmium. An examination of proteomic data revealed that TP53 knockout in HaCaT cells resulted in the upregulation of proteins involved in the regulation of apoptosis, redox systems, and DNA repair. Moreover, RT‒qPCR and immunoblotting showed that cadmium toxicity leads to dose-dependent induction of keratin 17 in p53-deficient cells but not in wild-type cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The connection between mutant p53 in HaCaT keratinocytes and increased resistance to cadmium toxicity was demonstrated for the first time. Proteomic profiling revealed that TP53 knockout in HaCaT cells led to the activation of apoptosis regulatory circuits, redox systems, and DNA repair. In addition, our data support the involvement of keratin 17 in the regulation of DNA repair and cell death. Apparently, the induction of keratin 17 is p53-independent but may be inhibited by mutant p53.

Exploring the Functions of Mutant p53 through TP53 Knockout in HaCaT Keratinocytes

Approximately 50% of tumors carry mutations in TP53; thus, evaluation of the features of mutant p53 is crucial to understanding the mechanisms underlying cell transformation and tumor progression. HaCaT keratinocytes represent a valuable model for research in this area since they are considered normal, although they bear two gain-of-function mutations in TP53. In the present study, transcriptomic and proteomic profiling were employed to examine the functions of mutant p53 and to investigate the impact of its complete abolishment. Our findings indicate that CRISPR-mediated TP53 knockout results in significant changes at the transcriptomic and proteomic levels. The knockout of TP53 significantly increased the migration rate and altered the expression of genes associated with invasion, migration, and EMT but suppressed the epidermal differentiation program. These outcomes suggest that, despite being dysfunctional, p53 may still possess oncosuppressive functions. However, despite being considered normal keratinocytes, HaCaT cells exhibit oncogenic properties.

Mechanisms of ammonotelism, epithelium damage, cellular apoptosis, and proliferation in gill of Litopenaeus vannamei under NH4Cl exposure

Excessive ammonia-N in coastal environment and aquaculture threatens the health of marine organisms. To explore the mechanism of gill damage induced by ammonia-N, transcriptome of Litopenaeus vannamei 's gill was carried out under 20 mg/L NH4Cl for 0, 6, and 48 h. K-means clustering analysis suggested that ammonia excretion and metabolism-related genes were elevated. GO and KEGG enrichment analysis suggested that glycosyltransferase activity and amino acid metabolism were affected by ammonia. Moreover, histological observation via three staining methods gave clues on the changes of gill after ammonia-N exposure. Increased mucus, hemocyte infiltration, and lifting of the lamellar epithelium suggested that gill epithelium was suffering damage under ammonia-N stress. Meanwhile, the composition of extracellular matrix (ECM) in connective tissue changed. Based on the findings of transcriptomic and histological analysis, we further investigated the molecular mechanism of gill damage under multiple concentrations of NH4Cl (0, 2, 10, 20 mg/L) for multiple timepoints (0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 h). First, ammonia excretion was elevated via ion channel, transporter, and exocytosis pathways, but hemolymph ammonia still kept at a high level under 20 mg/L NH4Cl exposure. Second, we focused on glycosaminoglycan metabolism which was related to the dynamics of ECM. It turned out that the degradation and biosynthesis of chondroitin sulfate (CS) were elevated, suggesting that the structure of CS might be destructed under ammonia-N stress and CS played an important role in maintaining gill structure. It was enlightening that the destructions occurred in extracellular regions were vital to gill damage. Third, ammonia-N stress induced a series of cellular responses including enhanced apoptosis, active inflammation, and inhibited proliferation which were closely linked and jointly led to the impairment of gill. Our results provided some insights into the physiological changes induced by ammonia-N and enriched the understandings of gill damage under environmental stress.

Evaluation of Cd-induced cytotoxicity in primary human keratinocytes

An increasing number of studies have investigated the effects of Cd on human health. Cd-induced dermatotoxicity is an important field of research, but numerous studies have focused on the effects of Cd on the human skin. Moreover, most studies have been performed using HaCaT cells but not primary keratinocytes. In this study, we provide the results describing the cytotoxic effects of Cd exposure on primary human epidermal keratinocytes obtained from different donors. The subtoxic concentration of cadmium chloride was determined via MTT assay, and transcriptomic analysis of the cells exposed to this concentration (25 µM) was performed. As in HaCaT cells, Cd exposure resulted in increased ROS levels, cell cycle arrest, and induction of apoptosis. In addition, we report that exposure to Cd affects zinc and copper homeostasis, induces metallothionein expression, and activates various signaling pathways, including Nrf2, NF-kB, TRAIL, and PI3K. Cd induces the secretion of various cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, IL-10, and PGE2) and upregulates the expression of several cytokeratins, such as KRT6B, KRT6C, KRT16, and KRT17. The results provide a better understanding of the mechanisms of cadmium-induced cytotoxicity and its effect on human epidermal skin cells.