Revealing the Changes in Saliva and Serum Proteins of Pigs with Meningitis Caused by Streptococcus Suis: A Proteomic Approach

Cystatin C, Ammonia, and Bicarbonate Measurements in the Saliva of Pigs: Analytical Validation and Changes in S. suis Infection

Cystatin C, ammonia, and bicarbonate have been described to be biomarkers of sepsis and inflammation in humans. The saliva of pigs can be used to detect a wide range of pathogens but also many biomarkers that can be analyzed to evaluate different conditions such as stress (i.e., cortisol and alpha amylase), immune system (i.e., ADA, S100 proteins), inflammation (i.e., acute phase proteins), redox status (i.e., various antioxidants and oxidants), and general metabolism or the status of different organs and tissues. However, there is a lack of assays for the possible measurement and use of cystatin C, ammonia, and bicarbonate in saliva as biomarkers of sepsis or inflammation in pigs. The objective of this study was to validate commercially available automated assays for the measurement of cystatin C, ammonia, and bicarbonate in the saliva of pigs, having the advantage of using a noninvasive sample that is easy to collect. The assays were precise and accurate, and the recommended storage condition for the saliva samples was -80 °C. In addition, cystatin and ammonia showed significant increases in the saliva of pigs with S. suis infection, whereas bicarbonate decreased. Further studies would be recommended to increase knowledge about the possible potential applications of the measurements of these three analytes in the saliva of pigs as biomarkers to evaluate the animals' health and welfare.

Characterization and pharmacokinetics of cinnamon and star anise compound essential oil pellets prepared via centrifugal granulation technology

Cinnamon and star anise essential oils are extracted from natural plants and provide a theoretical basis for the development and clinical application of compound essential oil pellets. However, cinnamon oil and star anise oil have the characteristics of a pungent taste, extreme volatility, poor palatability, and unstable physical and chemical properties, which limit their clinical use in veterinary medicine. In this study, the inhibitory effects of cinnamon oil and star anise oil on Escherichia coli and Salmonella were measured. Compound essential oil pellets were successfully prepared by centrifugal granulation technology. Subsequently, the in vitro dissolution of the pellets and their pharmacokinetics in pigs were investigated. The results showd that, cinnamon and star anise oils showed synergistic or additive inhibitiory effects on Escherichia coli and Salmonella. The oil pellets had enteric characteristics in vitro and high dissolution in vitro. The pharmacokinetic results showed that the pharmacokinetic parameters Cmax and AUC were directly correlated with the dosage and showed linear pharmacokinetic characteristics, which provided a theoretical basis for the development and clinical application of compound essential oil pellets.

Emerging Approaches for Mitigating Biofilm-Formation-Associated Infections in Farm, Wild, and Companion Animals

The importance of addressing the problem of biofilms in farm, wild, and companion animals lies in their pervasive impact on animal health and welfare. Biofilms, as resilient communities of microorganisms, pose a persistent challenge in causing infections and complicating treatment strategies. Recognizing and understanding the importance of mitigating biofilm formation is critical to ensuring the welfare of animals in a variety of settings, from farms to the wild and companion animals. Effectively addressing this issue not only improves the overall health of individual animals, but also contributes to the broader goals of sustainable agriculture, wildlife conservation, and responsible pet ownership. This review examines the current understanding of biofilm formation in animal diseases and elucidates the complex processes involved. Recognizing the limitations of traditional antibiotic treatments, mechanisms of resistance associated with biofilms are explored. The focus is on alternative therapeutic strategies to control biofilm, with illuminating case studies providing valuable context and practical insights. In conclusion, the review highlights the importance of exploring emerging approaches to mitigate biofilm formation in animals. It consolidates existing knowledge, highlights gaps in understanding, and encourages further research to address this critical facet of animal health. The comprehensive perspective provided by this review serves as a foundation for future investigations and interventions to improve the management of biofilm-associated infections in diverse animal populations.

Advances in Research on Pig Salivary Analytes: A Window to Reveal Pig Health and Physiological Status

Saliva is an important exocrine fluid that is easy to collect and is a complex mixture of proteins and other molecules from multiple sources from which considerable biological information can be mined. Pig saliva, as an easily available biological liquid rich in bioactive ingredients, is rich in nucleic acid analytes, such as eggs, enzymes, amino acids, sugars, etc. The expression levels of these components in different diseases have received extensive attention, and the analysis of specific proteins, metabolites, and biological compositions in pig saliva has become a new direction for disease diagnosis and treatment. The study of the changes in analytes in pig saliva can provide a new strategy for early diagnosis, prognosis assessment, and treatment of diseases. In this paper, the detection methods and research progress of porcine salivary analytes are reviewed, the application and research progress of porcine salivary analytes in diseases are discussed, and the future application prospect is presented.

Changes in S100A8/A9 and S100A12 and Their Comparison with Other Analytes in the Saliva of Pigs with Diarrhea Due to E. coli

The family of calgranulins includes S100A8 (calgranulin A), S100A9 (calgranulin B), which can appear as a heterodimer known as S100A8/A9 or calprotectin, and S100A12 (calgranulin C). These proteins are related to different inflammatory conditions, immune-mediated diseases, and sepsis and are considered biomarkers of potential interest. This study aims to evaluate if S100A8/A9 and A12 could change in pigs with diarrhea due to E. coli and to compare the changes of S100A8/A9 and A12 with other analytes in order to explore the possible causes or mechanisms involved. For this purpose, a panel integrated by analytes related to inflammation (haptoglobin, inter-alpha trypsin inhibitor 4 (ITIH4), and total protein); immune system (adenosine deaminase, ADA); stress (alpha-amylase); tissue damage (lactate and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)); sepsis (aldolase) and redox status (ferric-reducing ability of saliva (FRAS) and advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP)) was evaluated. S100A8/A9 and A12 and the other analytes measured in this study showed increases in the saliva of pigs with diarrhea due to E. coli. S100A8/A9 and/or A12 showed a significant correlation of different magnitude with some of the other analytes evaluated. Further studies should be conducted to gain knowledge about the possible practical applications as biomarkers of the measurements of S100A8/A9 and A12 in the saliva of pigs.

Changes in salivary biomarkers of stress, inflammation, redox status, and muscle damage due to Streptococcus suis infection in pigs

BACKGROUND

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is a Gram-positive bacteria that infects pigs causing meningitis, arthritis, pneumonia, or endocarditis. This increases the mortality in pig farms deriving in severe economic losses. The use of saliva as a diagnostic fluid has various advantages compared to blood, especially in pigs. In this study, it was hypothesized that saliva could reflect changes in different biomarkers related to stress, inflammation, redox status, and muscle damage in pigs with S. suis infection and that changes in these biomarkers could be related to the severity of the disease.

RESULTS

A total of 56 growing pigs from a farm were selected as infected pigs (n = 28) and healthy pigs (n = 28). Results showed increases in biomarkers related to stress (alpha-amylase and oxytocin), inflammation (haptoglobin, inter-alpha-trypsin inhibitor heavy chain 4 (ITIH4), total protein, S100A8-A9 and S100A12), redox status (advanced oxidation protein producs (AOPP)) and muscle damage (creatine kinase (CK), CK-MB, troponin I, lactate, aspartate aminotransferase, and lactate dehydrogenase). An increase in adenosine deaminase (ADA), procalcitonin, and aldolase in infected animals were also observed, as previously described. The grade of severity of the disease indicated a significant positive correlation with total protein concentrations, aspartate aminotransferase, aldolase, and AOPP.

CONCLUSIONS

This report revealed that S. suis infection caused variations in analytes related to stress, inflammation, redox status, and muscle damage in the saliva of pigs and these can be considered potential biomarkers for this disease.

Changes in the Saliva Proteome of Pigs with Diarrhoea Caused by Escherichia coli

Escherichia coli represents the main cause of diarrhoea in pigs. Saliva can provide information about the pathophysiology of diseases and be a source of biomarkers. We aimed to identify changes in the salivary proteome of pigs with diarrhoea caused by E. coli. Saliva samples were collected from 10 pigs with this disease and 10 matched healthy controls. SDS-PAGE (1DE) and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) were performed, and significantly different protein bands and spots were identified by mass spectrometry. For validation, adenosine deaminase (ADA) was measured in 28 healthy and 28 diseased pigs. In 1DE, increases in lipocalin and IgA bands were observed for diseased pigs, whereas bands containing proteins such as odorant-binding protein and/or prolactin-inducible protein presented decreased concentrations. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) results showed that saliva from E. coli animals presented higher expression levels of lipocalin, ADA, IgA and albumin peptides, being ADA activity increased in the diseased pigs in the validation study. Spots containing alpha-amylase, carbonic anhydrase VI, and whole albumin were decreased in diseased animals. Overall, pigs with diarrhoea caused by E. coli have changes in proteins in their saliva related to various pathophysiological mechanisms such as inflammation and immune function and could potentially be biomarkers of this disease.