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Batistatou N, Kritzer JA. Comparing Cell Penetration of Biotherapeutics across Human Cell Lines. ACS Chem Biol 2024; 19:1351-1365. [PMID: 38836425 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.4c00211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
A major obstacle in biotherapeutics development is maximizing cell penetration. Ideally, assays would allow for optimization of cell penetration in the cell type of interest early in the drug development process. However, few assays exist to compare cell penetration across different cell types independent of drug function. In this work, we applied the chloroalkane penetration assay (CAPA) in seven mammalian cell lines as well as primary cells. Careful controls were used to ensure that data could be compared across cell lines. We compared the nuclear penetration of several peptides and drug-like oligonucleotides and saw significant differences among the cell lines. To help explain these differences, we quantified the relative activities of endocytosis pathways in these cell lines and correlated them with the penetration data. Based on these results, we knocked down clathrin in a cell line with an efficient permeability profile and observed reduced penetration of peptides but not oligonucleotides. Finally, we used small-molecule endosomal escape enhancers and observed enhancement of cell penetration of some oligonucleotides, but only in some of the cell lines tested. CAPA data provide valuable points of comparison among different cell lines, including primary cells, for evaluating the cell penetration of various classes of peptides and oligonucleotides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nefeli Batistatou
- Department of Chemistry, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | - Joshua A Kritzer
- Department of Chemistry, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
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Wang X, Xie Y, Fan X, Wu X, Wang D, Zhu L. Intermittent hypoxia training enhances Aβ endocytosis by plaque associated microglia via VPS35-dependent TREM2 recycling in murine Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Res Ther 2024; 16:121. [PMID: 38831312 PMCID: PMC11145795 DOI: 10.1186/s13195-024-01489-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Beta-amyloid (Aβ) deposition in the brain parenchyma is a crucial initiating step in the amyloid cascade hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology. Furthermore, dysfunction of plaque-associated microglia, also known as disease-associated microglia (DAM) has been reported to accelerate Aβ deposition and cognitive impairment. Our previous research demonstrated that intermittent hypoxia training (IHT) improved AD pathology by upregulating autophagy in DAM, thereby enhancing oligomeric Aβ (oAβ) clearance. Considering that oAβ internalization is the initial stage of oAβ clearance, this study focused on the IHT mechanism involved in upregulating Aβ uptake by DAM. METHODS IHT was administered to 8-month-old APP/PS1 mice or 6-month-old microglial vacuolar protein sorting 35 (VPS35) knockout mice in APP/PS1 background (MG VPS35 KO: APP/PS1) for 28 days. After the IHT, the spatial learning-memory capacity of the mice was assessed. Additionally, AD pathology was determined by estimating the nerve fiber and synapse density, Aβ plaque deposition, and Aβ load in the brain. A model of Aβ-exposed microglia was constructed and treated with IHT to explore the related mechanism. Finally, triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) intracellular recycling and Aβ internalization were measured using a fluorescence tracing technique. RESULTS Our results showed that IHT ameliorated cognitive function and Aβ pathology. In particular, IHT enhanced Aβ endocytosis by augmenting the intracellular transport function of microglial TREM2, thereby contributing to Aβ clearance. Furthermore, IHT specifically upregulated VPS35 in DAM, the primary cause for the enhanced intracellular recycling of TREM2. IHT lost ameliorative effect on Aβ pathology in MG VPS35 KO: APP/PS1 mice brain. Lastly, the IHT mechanism of VPS35 upregulation in DAM was mediated by the transcriptional regulation of VPS35 by transcription factor EB (TFEB). CONCLUSION IHT enhances Aβ endocytosis in DAM by upregulating VPS35-dependent TREM2 recycling, thereby facilitating oAβ clearance and mitigation of Aβ pathology. Moreover, the transcriptional regulation of VPS35 by TFEB demonstrates a close link between endocytosis and autophagy in microglia. Our study further elucidates the IHT mechanism in improving AD pathology and provides evidence supporting the potential application of IHT as a complementary therapy for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueting Wang
- Institute of Special Environmental Medicine, Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, No.9, Seyuan Road, Chongchuan District, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226009, China.
| | - Yuqi Xie
- Institute of Special Environmental Medicine, Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, No.9, Seyuan Road, Chongchuan District, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226009, China
| | - Xiaoyang Fan
- Institute of Special Environmental Medicine, Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, No.9, Seyuan Road, Chongchuan District, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226009, China
| | - Xiaomei Wu
- Institute of Special Environmental Medicine, Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, No.9, Seyuan Road, Chongchuan District, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226009, China
| | - Dan Wang
- Institute of Special Environmental Medicine, Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, No.9, Seyuan Road, Chongchuan District, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226009, China
| | - Li Zhu
- Institute of Special Environmental Medicine, Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, No.9, Seyuan Road, Chongchuan District, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226009, China.
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Minns LA, Sausman KT, Brown AP, York RA, McCall JR. Karenia brevis Extract Induces Cellular Entry through Distinct Mechanisms in Phagocytic RAW 264.7 Macrophages versus Non-Phagocytic Vero Cells. Mar Drugs 2023; 22:4. [PMID: 38276642 PMCID: PMC10820030 DOI: 10.3390/md22010004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Marine algae extracts are an important area of potential drug discovery; however, nearly all studies to date have used non-fluorescent-based methods to determine changes in target cell activity. Many of the most robust immunological and cellular analyses rely on fluorescent probes and readouts, which can be problematic when the algae extract is fluorescent itself. In this study, we identified the fluorescent spectrum of an isolated extract from the marine dinoflagellate Karenia brevis, which included two fluorescing components: chlorophyll α and pheophytin α. When excited at 405 nm and 664 nm, the extract emitted fluorescence at 676 nm and 696 nm, respectively. The extract and its fluorescing components, chlorophyll α and pheophytin α, entered phagocytic RAW 264.7 macrophages and non-phagocytic Vero kidney cells through distinct mechanisms. When incubated with the extract and its main components, both the RAW 264.7 macrophages and the Vero cells accumulated fluorescence as early as 30 min and continued through 48 h. Vero kidney cells accumulated the K. brevis fluorescent extract through a dynamin-independent and acidified endosomal-dependent mechanism. RAW 264.7 macrophages accumulated fluorescent extract through a dynamin-independent, acidified endosomal-independent mechanism, which supports accumulation through phagocytosis. Furthermore, RAW 264.7 macrophages downregulated cell-surface expression of CD206 in response to extract stimulation indicating activation of phagocytic responses and potential immunosuppression of these immune cells. This study represents the first characterization of the cellular update of K. brevis extracts in phagocytic versus non-phagocytic cells. The data suggest the importance of understanding cellular uptake of fluorescing algae extracts and their mechanism of action for future drug discovery efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurie A. Minns
- School of Nursing, College of Health and Human Services, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 601 S. College Road, Wilmington, NC 28403, USA; (L.A.M.)
- Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 5600 Marvin K Moss Lane, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA
| | - Kathryn T. Sausman
- School of Nursing, College of Health and Human Services, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 601 S. College Road, Wilmington, NC 28403, USA; (L.A.M.)
- Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 5600 Marvin K Moss Lane, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA
| | - Ariel P. Brown
- School of Nursing, College of Health and Human Services, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 601 S. College Road, Wilmington, NC 28403, USA; (L.A.M.)
- Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 5600 Marvin K Moss Lane, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA
| | - Robert A. York
- Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 5600 Marvin K Moss Lane, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA
- Algal Resources Collection, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 5600 Marvin K Moss Lane, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA
| | - Jennifer R. McCall
- School of Nursing, College of Health and Human Services, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 601 S. College Road, Wilmington, NC 28403, USA; (L.A.M.)
- Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 5600 Marvin K Moss Lane, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA
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Zhu F, Wang S, Zhu X, Pang C, Cui P, Yang F, Li R, Zhan Q, Xin H. Potential effects of biomaterials on macrophage function and their signalling pathways. Biomater Sci 2023; 11:6977-7002. [PMID: 37695360 DOI: 10.1039/d3bm01213a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
The use of biomaterials in biomedicine and healthcare has increased in recent years. Macrophages are the primary immune cells that induce inflammation and tissue repair after implantation of biomaterials. Given that macrophages exhibit high heterogeneity and plasticity, the influence of biomaterials on macrophage phenotype should be considered a crucial evaluation criterion during the development of novel biomaterials. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the physicochemical, biological, and dynamic characteristics of biomaterials that drive the regulation of immune responses in macrophages. The mechanisms involved in the interaction between macrophages and biomaterials, including endocytosis, receptors, signalling pathways, integrins, inflammasomes and long non-coding RNAs, are summarised in this review. In addition, research prospects of the interaction between macrophages and biomaterials are discussed. An in-depth understanding of mechanisms underlying the spatiotemporal changes in macrophage phenotype induced by biomaterials and their impact on macrophage polarization can facilitate the identification and development of novel biomaterials with superior performance. These biomaterials may be used for tissue repair and regeneration, vaccine or drug delivery and immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fujun Zhu
- Department of Burns and Plastic Surgery, the No. 924th Hospital of the Joint Logistic Support Force of the Chinese PLA, Guilin, Guangxi 541002, People's Republic of China.
| | - Shaolian Wang
- Central Sterile Supply Department, the No. 924th Hospital of the Joint Logistic Support Force of the Chinese PLA, Guilin, Guangxi 541002, People's Republic of China
| | - Xianglian Zhu
- Outpatient Department, the No. 924th Hospital of the Joint Logistic Support Force of the Chinese PLA, Guilin, Guangxi 541002, People's Republic of China
| | - Caixiang Pang
- Department of Emergency Medicine, the No. 924th Hospital of the Joint Logistic Support Force of the Chinese PLA, Guilin, Guangxi 541002, People's Republic of China
| | - Pei Cui
- Animal Laboratory, the No. 924th Hospital of the Joint Logistic Support Force of the Chinese PLA, Guilin, Guangxi 541002, People's Republic of China
| | - Fuwang Yang
- Department of Burns and Plastic Surgery, the No. 924th Hospital of the Joint Logistic Support Force of the Chinese PLA, Guilin, Guangxi 541002, People's Republic of China.
| | - Rongsheng Li
- Animal Laboratory, the No. 924th Hospital of the Joint Logistic Support Force of the Chinese PLA, Guilin, Guangxi 541002, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiu Zhan
- Animal Laboratory, the No. 924th Hospital of the Joint Logistic Support Force of the Chinese PLA, Guilin, Guangxi 541002, People's Republic of China
| | - Haiming Xin
- Department of Burns and Plastic Surgery, the No. 924th Hospital of the Joint Logistic Support Force of the Chinese PLA, Guilin, Guangxi 541002, People's Republic of China.
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Zhang JJ, Song CG, Wang M, Zhang GQ, Wang B, Chen X, Lin P, Zhu YM, Sun ZC, Wang YZ, Jiang JL, Li L, Yang XM, Chen ZN. Monoclonal antibody targeting mu-opioid receptor attenuates morphine tolerance via enhancing morphine-induced receptor endocytosis. J Pharm Anal 2023; 13:1135-1152. [PMID: 38024852 PMCID: PMC10657976 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2023.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Revised: 05/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Morphine is a frequently used analgesic that activates the mu-opioid receptor (MOR), which has prominent side effects of tolerance. Although the inefficiency of morphine in inducing the endocytosis of MOR underlies the development of morphine tolerance, currently, there is no effective therapy to treat morphine tolerance. In the current study, we aimed to develop a monoclonal antibody (mAb) precisely targeting MOR and to determine its therapeutic efficacy on morphine tolerance and the underlying molecular mechanisms. We successfully prepared a mAb targeting MOR, named 3A5C7, by hybridoma technique using a strategy of deoxyribonucleic acid immunization combined with cell immunization, and identified it as an immunoglobulin G mAb with high specificity and affinity for MOR and binding ability to antigens with spatial conformation. Treatment of two cell lines, HEK293T and SH-SY5Y, with 3A5C7 enhanced morphine-induced MOR endocytosis via a G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2)/β-arrestin2-dependent mechanism, as demonstrated by immunofluorescence staining, flow cytometry, Western blotting, coimmunoprecipitation, and small interfering ribonucleic acid (siRNA)-based knockdown. This mAb also allowed MOR recycling from cytoplasm to plasma membrane and attenuated morphine-induced phosphorylation of MOR. We established an in vitro morphine tolerance model using differentiated SH-SY5Y cells induced by retinoic acid. Western blot, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, and siRNA-based knockdown revealed that 3A5C7 mAb diminished hyperactivation of adenylate cyclase, the in vitro biomarker of morphine tolerance, via the GRK2/β-arrestin2 pathway. Furthermore, in vivo hotplate test demonstrated that chronic intrathecal administration of 3A5C7 significantly alleviated morphine tolerance in mice, and withdrawal jumping test revealed that both chronic and acute 3A5C7 intrathecal administration attenuated morphine dependence. Finally, intrathecal electroporation of silencing short hairpin RNA illustrated that the in vivo anti-tolerance and anti-dependence efficacy of 3A5C7 was mediated by enhanced morphine-induced MOR endocytosis via GRK2/β-arrestin2 pathway. Collectively, our study provided a therapeutic mAb, 3A5C7, targeting MOR to treat morphine tolerance, mediated by enhancing morphine-induced MOR endocytosis. The mAb 3A5C7 demonstrates promising translational value to treat clinical morphine tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Jia Zhang
- National Translational Science Center for Molecular Medicine & Department of Cell Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Chang-Geng Song
- Department of Neurology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Miao Wang
- National Translational Science Center for Molecular Medicine & Department of Cell Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Gai-Qin Zhang
- National Translational Science Center for Molecular Medicine & Department of Cell Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Bin Wang
- National Translational Science Center for Molecular Medicine & Department of Cell Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Xi Chen
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule of the Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Peng Lin
- National Translational Science Center for Molecular Medicine & Department of Cell Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Yu-Meng Zhu
- National Translational Science Center for Molecular Medicine & Department of Cell Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Zhi-Chuan Sun
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xi'an Daxing Hospital, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Ya-Zhou Wang
- Department of Neurobiology and Institute of Neurosciences, Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, School of Basic Medicine, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Jian-Li Jiang
- National Translational Science Center for Molecular Medicine & Department of Cell Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Ling Li
- National Translational Science Center for Molecular Medicine & Department of Cell Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Xiang-Min Yang
- National Translational Science Center for Molecular Medicine & Department of Cell Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Zhi-Nan Chen
- National Translational Science Center for Molecular Medicine & Department of Cell Biology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
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Cheng J, Wang W, Xia Y, Li Y, Jia J, Xiao G. Regulators of phagocytosis as pharmacologic targets for stroke treatment. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1122527. [PMID: 37601043 PMCID: PMC10433754 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1122527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Stroke, including ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, causes massive cell death in the brain, which is followed by secondary inflammatory injury initiated by disease-associated molecular patterns released from dead cells. Phagocytosis, a cellular process of engulfment and digestion of dead cells, promotes the resolution of inflammation and repair following stroke. However, professional or non-professional phagocytes also phagocytose stressed but viable cells in the brain or excessively phagocytose myelin sheaths or prune synapses, consequently exacerbating brain injury and impairing repair following stroke. Phagocytosis includes the smell, eating and digestion phases. Notably, efficient phagocytosis critically depends on phagocyte capacity to take up dead cells continually due to the limited number of phagocytes vs. dead cells after injury. Moreover, phenotypic polarization of phagocytes occurring after phagocytosis is also essential to the proresolving and prorepair properties of phagocytosis. Much has been learned about the molecular signals and regulatory mechanisms governing the sense and recognition of dead cells by phagocytes during the smell and eating phase following stroke. However, some key areas remain extremely understudied, including the mechanisms involved in digestion regulation, continual phagocytosis and phagocytosis-induced phenotypic switching following stroke. Here, we summarize new discoveries related to the molecular mechanisms and multifaceted effects of phagocytosis on brain injury and repair following stroke and highlight the knowledge gaps in poststroke phagocytosis. We suggest that advancing the understanding of poststroke phagocytosis will help identify more biological targets for stroke treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Cheng
- Clinical Research Center of Neurological Disease, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Institute of Neuroscience, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Yiqing Xia
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Institute of Neuroscience, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Yi Li
- Academy of Pharmacy, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou, China
| | - Jia Jia
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Guodong Xiao
- Suzhou Clinical Research Center of Neurological Disease, Department of Neurology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
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