Three-Dimensional Cell Cultures: The Bridge between In Vitro and In Vivo Models

Formation of ovarian organoid by co-culture of human endometrial mesenchymal stem cells and mouse oocyte in 3-dimensional culture system

The purpose of this study was to compare the formation of organoid structures by co-culturing of human endometrial mesenchymal stem cells (hEnMSCs) and mouse germinal vesicle (GV) oocytes in hanging drop and sodium alginate hydrogel co-culture methods. Following the preparation of hEnMSCs and partially denuded mouse germinal vesicle oocytes, they were co-cultured in hanging drop and sodium alginate hydrogel systems as two experimental groups. In respected control groups the hEnMSCs were cultured without oocytes. The organoid formation was evaluated under the inverted microscope in all studied groups during the culture period. The hematoxylin and eosin, alcian blue, periodic acid Schiff, and Masson's trichrome methods, were applied for morphological evaluation and extracellular matrix components staining such as glycosaminoglycan, carbohydrate, and collagen fibers. In addition, the germ cell-like characteristics within the organoid structures were investigated via alkaline phosphatase activity immunocytochemistry for DEAD-box polypeptide 4 (DDX4), and the expression of octamer-binding transcription factor 4 (OCT4), DDX4, and synaptonemal complex protein 3 (SYCP3) genes by real-time RT-PCR. The culturing of hEnMSCs in the hanging drop method led to the formation of organoid structures while this structure was not seen in sodium alginate hydrogel culture. The mean diameter of organoid structures was increased during 4 days of culture in both the experimental and control groups in the hanging drop method, reaching 675.50 ± 18.55 µm and 670.25 ± 21.40 µm, respectively (P < 0.05). Morphological staining indicated some large ovoid cells with euchromatin nuclei in the experimental group, whereas, in the control group cells showed dark and dense nuclei. The extracellular matrix components were deposited in organoid structures in both control and experimental groups. The positive alkaline phosphatase activity and immunocytochemistry for DDX4 confirmed the presence of germ cell-like in the experimental group. Real-time RT-PCR showed a significant increase in the expression of DDX4 and SYCP3 genes and a decrease in the level of OCT4 expression in the experimental group compared with its controls. This study successfully generated organoid structures by co-culture of hEnMSCs and oocytes in the hanging drop method and the hEnMSCs could be differentiated into germ cell-like. This organoid structure has potential applications in regenerative medicine and reproductive biology.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10616-024-00639-w.

Engineering Three-Dimensional Spheroid Culture for Enrichment of Proangiogenic miRNAs in Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Promotion of Angiogenesis

In the field of regenerative medicine, umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells (UC-MSCs) have a plausible potential. However, traditional two-dimensional (2D) culture systems remain limited in replicating the complex in vivo microenvironment. Thus, three-dimensional (3D) cultures offer a more physiologically relevant model. This study explored the impact of 3D culture conditions on the UC-MSC secretome and its ability to promote angiogenesis, both in vitro and in vivo. In this study, using two distinct methods, we successfully cultured UC-MSCs: in a monolayer (2D-UC-MSCs) and as spheroids formed in U-shaped 96-well plates (3D-UC-MSCs). The presence and expression of proangiogenic miRNAs in the conditioned media (CM) of these cultures were investigated, and differential expression patterns were explored. Particularly, the CM of 3D-UC-MSCs revealed significantly higher levels of miR-21-5p, miR-126-5p, and miR-130a-3p compared to 2D-UC-MSCs. Moreover, the CM from 3D-UC-MSCs revealed a higher effect on endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and tube formation than did the CM from 2D-UC-MSCs, indicating their proangiogenic potential. In an in vivo Matrigel plug mouse model, 3D-UC-MSCs (cells) stimulated greater vascular formation compared to 2D-UC-MSCs (cells). 3D culture of UC-MSCs' secretome improves the promotion of angiogenesis.

Photobiomodulation Dose-Response on Adipose-Derived Stem Cell Osteogenesis in 3D Cultures

Osteoporosis and other degenerative bone diseases pose significant challenges to global healthcare systems due to their prevalence and impact on quality of life. Current treatments often alleviate symptoms without fully restoring damaged bone tissue, highlighting the need for innovative approaches like stem cell therapy. Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADMSCs) are particularly promising due to their accessibility, abundant supply, and strong differentiation potential. However, ADMSCs tend to favor adipogenic pathways, necessitating the use of differentiation inducers (DIs), three-dimensional (3D) hydrogel environments, and photobiomodulation (PBM) to achieve targeted osteogenic differentiation. This study investigated the combined effects of osteogenic DIs, a fast-dextran hydrogel matrix, and PBM at specific wavelengths and fluences on the proliferation and differentiation of immortalized ADMSCs into osteoblasts. Near-infrared (NIR) and green (G) light, as well as their combination, were used with fluences of 3 J/cm2, 5 J/cm2, and 7 J/cm2. The results showed statistically significant increases in alkaline phosphatase levels, a marker of osteogenic differentiation, with G light at 7 J/cm2 demonstrating the most substantial impact on ADMSC differentiation. Calcium deposits, visualized by Alizarin red S staining, appeared as early as 24 h post-treatment in PBM groups, suggesting accelerated osteogenic differentiation. ATP luminescence assays indicated increased proliferation in all experimental groups, particularly with NIR and NIR-G light at 3 J/cm2 and 5 J/cm2. MTT viability and LDH membrane permeability assays confirmed enhanced cell viability and stable cell health, respectively. In conclusion, PBM significantly influences the differentiation and proliferation of hydrogel-embedded immortalized ADMSCs into osteoblast-like cells, with G light at 7 J/cm2 being particularly effective. These findings support the combined use of 3D hydrogel matrices and PBM as a promising approach in regenerative medicine, potentially leading to innovative treatments for degenerative bone diseases.

Two Decades of Advances and Limitations in Organ Recellularization

The recellularization of tissues after decellularization is a relatively new technology in the field of tissue engineering (TE). Decellularization involves removing cells from a tissue or organ, leaving only the extracellular matrix (ECM). This can then be recellularized with new cells to create functional tissues or organs. The first significant mention of recellularization in decellularized tissues can be traced to research conducted in the early 2000s. One of the landmark studies in this field was published in 2008 by Ott, where researchers demonstrated the recellularization of a decellularized rat heart with cardiac cells, resulting in a functional organ capable of contraction. Since then, other important studies have been published. These studies paved the way for the widespread application of recellularization in TE, demonstrating the potential of decellularized ECM to serve as a scaffold for regenerating functional tissues. Thus, although the concept of recellularization was initially explored in previous decades, these studies from the 2000s marked a major turning point in the development and practical application of the technology for the recellularization of decellularized tissues. The article reviews the historical advances and limitations in organ recellularization in TE over the last two decades.

Patterned PVA Hydrogels with 3D Petri Dish® Micro-Molds of Varying Topography for Spheroid Formation of HeLa Cancer Cells: In Vitro Assessment

Cell spheroids are an important three-dimensional (3D) model for in vitro testing and are gaining interest for their use in clinical applications. More natural 3D cell culture environments that support cell-cell interactions have been created for cancer drug discovery and therapy applications, such as the scaffold-free 3D Petri Dish® technology. This technology uses reusable and autoclavable silicone micro-molds with different topographies, and it conventionally uses gelled agarose for hydrogel formation to preserve the topography of the selected micro-mold. The present study investigated the feasibility of using a patterned Poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogel using the circular topography 12-81 (9 × 9 wells) micro-mold to form HeLa cancer cell spheroids and compare them with the formed spheroids using agarose hydrogels. PVA hydrogels showed a slightly softer, springier, and stickier texture than agarose hydrogels. After preparation, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra showed chemical interactions through hydrogen bonding in the PVA and agarose hydrogels. Both types of hydrogels favor the formation of large HeLa spheroids with an average diameter of around 700-800 µm after 72 h. However, the PVA spheroids are more compact than those from agarose, suggesting a potential influence of micro-mold surface chemistry on cell behavior and spheroid formation. This was additionally confirmed by evaluating the spheroid size, morphology, integrity, as well as E-cadherin and Ki67 expression. The results suggest that PVA promotes stronger cell-to-cell interactions in the spheroids. Even the integrity of PVA spheroids was maintained after exposure to the drug cisplatin. In conclusion, the patterned PVA hydrogels were successfully prepared using the 3D Petri Dish® micro-molds, and they could be used as suitable platforms for studying cell-cell interactions in cancer drug therapy.

Spheroid Model of Mammary Tumor Cells: Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition and Doxorubicin Response

Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancer among women worldwide. Therapeutic strategies to control tumors and metastasis are still challenging. Three-dimensional (3D) spheroid-type systems more accurately replicate the features of tumors in vivo, working as a better platform for performing therapeutic response analysis. This work aimed to characterize the epithelial-mesenchymal transition and doxorubicin (dox) response in a mammary tumor spheroid (MTS) model. We evaluated the doxorubicin treatment effect on MCF-7 spheroid diameter, cell viability, death, migration and proteins involved in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process. Spheroids were also produced from tumors formed from 4T1 and 67NR cell lines. MTSs mimicked avascular tumor characteristics, exhibited adherens junction proteins and independently produced their own extracellular matrix. Our spheroid model supports the 3D culturing of cells isolated from mice mammary tumors. Through the migration assay, we verified a reduction in E-cadherin expression and an increase in vimentin expression as the cells became more distant from spheroids. Dox promoted cytotoxicity in MTSs and inhibited cell migration and the EMT process. These results suggest, for the first time, that this model reproduces aspects of the EMT process and describes the potential of dox in inhibiting the metastatic process, which can be further explored.

Recent Advances in Graphene Oxide-Based on Organoid Culture as Disease Model and Cell Behavior - A Systematic Literature Review

Due to their ability to replicate the in vivo microenvironment through cell interaction and induce cells to stimulate cell function, three-dimensional cell culture models can overcome the limitations of two-dimensional models. Organoids are 3D models that demonstrate the ability to replicate the natural structure of an organ. In most organoid tissue cultures, matrigel made of a mouse tumor extracellular matrix protein mixture is an essential ingredient. However, its tumor-derived origin, batch-to-batch variation, high cost, and safety concerns have limited the usefulness of organoid drug development and regenerative medicine. Its clinical application has also been hindered by the fact that organoid generation is dependent on the use of poorly defined matrices. Therefore, matrix optimization is a crucial step in developing organoid culture that introduces alternatives as different materials. Recently, a variety of substitute materials has reportedly replaced matrigel. The purpose of this study is to review the significance of the latest advances in materials for cell culture applications and how they enhance build network systems by generating proper cell behavior. Excellence in cell behavior is evaluated from their cell characteristics, cell proliferation, cell differentiation, and even gene expression. As a result, graphene oxide as a matrix optimization demonstrated high potency in developing organoid models. Graphene oxide can promote good cell behavior and is well known for having good biocompatibility. Hence, advances in matrix optimization of graphene oxide provide opportunities for the future development of advanced organoid models.

Advancing Tissue Culture with Light-Driven 3D-Printed Microfluidic Devices

Three-dimensional (3D) printing presents a compelling alternative for fabricating microfluidic devices, circumventing certain limitations associated with traditional soft lithography methods. Microfluidics play a crucial role in the biomedical sciences, particularly in the creation of tissue spheroids and pharmaceutical research. Among the various 3D printing techniques, light-driven methods such as stereolithography (SLA), digital light processing (DLP), and photopolymer inkjet printing have gained prominence in microfluidics due to their rapid prototyping capabilities, high-resolution printing, and low processing temperatures. This review offers a comprehensive overview of light-driven 3D printing techniques used in the fabrication of advanced microfluidic devices. It explores biomedical applications for 3D-printed microfluidics and provides insights into their potential impact and functionality within the biomedical field. We further summarize three light-driven 3D printing strategies for producing biomedical microfluidic systems: direct construction of microfluidic devices for cell culture, PDMS-based microfluidic devices for tissue engineering, and a modular SLA-printed microfluidic chip to co-culture and monitor cells.

Tailoring epilepsy treatment: personalized micro-physiological systems illuminate individual drug responses

Introduction

Approximately 50 million people worldwide have epilepsy, with many not achieving seizure freedom. Organ-on-chip technology, which mimics organ-level physiology, could revolutionize drug development for epilepsy by replacing animal models in preclinical studies. The authors' goal is to determine if customized micro-physiological systems can lead to tailored drug treatments for epileptic patients.

Materials and methods

A comprehensive literature search was conducted utilizing various databases, including PubMed, Ebscohost, Medline, and the National Library of Medicine, using a predetermined search strategy. The authors focused on articles that addressed the role of personalized micro-physiological systems in individual drug responses and articles that discussed different types of epilepsy, diagnosis, and current treatment options. Additionally, articles that explored the components and design considerations of micro-physiological systems were reviewed to identify challenges and opportunities in drug development for challenging epilepsy cases.

Results

The micro-physiological system offers a more accurate and cost-effective alternative to traditional models for assessing drug effects, toxicities, and disease mechanisms. Nevertheless, designing patient-specific models presents critical considerations, including the integration of analytical biosensors and patient-derived cells, while addressing regulatory, material, and biological complexities. Material selection, standardization, integration of vascular systems, cost efficiency, real-time monitoring, and ethical considerations are also crucial to the successful use of this technology in drug development.

Conclusion

The future of organ-on-chip technology holds great promise, with the potential to integrate artificial intelligence and machine learning for personalized treatment of epileptic patients.

Three-dimensional (3D) polylactic acid gradient scaffold to study the behavior of osteosarcoma cells under dynamic conditions

This study adopts an in vitro method to recapitulate the behavior of Saos-2 cells, using a system composed of a perfusion bioreactor and poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA) scaffold fabricated using the low-cost thermally-induced phase separation (TIPS) technique. Four distinct scaffold morphologies with different pore sizes were fabricated, characterized by Scanning electron microscopy and micro-CT analysis and tested with osteosarcoma cells under static and dynamic environments to identify the best morphology for cellular growth. In order to accomplish this purpose, cell growth and matrix deposition of the Saos-2 osteosarcoma cell line were assessed using Picogreen and OsteoImage assays. The obtained data allowed us to identify the morphology that better promotes Saos-2 cellular activity in static and dynamic conditions. These findings provided valuable insights into scaffold design and fabrication strategies, emphasizing the importance of the dynamic culture to recreate an appropriate 3D osteosarcoma model. Remarkably, the gradient scaffold exhibits promise for osteosarcoma applications, offering the potential for targeted tissue engineering approaches.

Hydrogel-embedded precision-cut lung slices support ex vivo culture of in vivo -induced premalignant lung lesions

Lung cancer is the leading cause of global cancer death and prevention strategies are key to reducing mortality. Medical prevention may have a larger impact than treatment on mortality by targeting high-risk populations and reducing their lung cancer risk. Premalignant lesions (PMLs) that can be intercepted by prevention agents are difficult to study in humans but easily accessible in murine preclinical carcinogenesis studies. Precision-cut lung slices (PCLS) are underutilized as an ex vivo model for lung cancer studies due to limited culture time. Embedding PCLS within bioengineered hydrogels extends PCLS viability and functionality for up to six weeks. Here, we embedded PCLS generated from urethane-induced murine PMLs in cell-degradable and non-degradable hydrogels to study viability and activity of the tissues over six weeks. PMLs in hydrogel-embedded PCLS maintained viability, gene expression, and proliferation. Treatment of hydrogel-embedded PCLS containing urethane-induced PMLs with iloprost, a known lung cancer prevention agent, recapitulated in vivo gene expression and activity. These studies also showed that iloprost reduced proliferation and PML size in hydrogel-embedded PCLS, with some differences based on hydrogel formulation and suggested that hydrogel-embedded PCLS models may support long-term culture of in vivo generated PMLs to improve preclinical studies of lung cancer and prevention agents.

Alternatives of Animal Models for Biomedical Research: a Comprehensive Review of Modern Approaches

Biomedical research has long relied on animal models to unravel the intricacies of human physiology and pathology. However, concerns surrounding ethics, expenses, and inherent species differences have catalyzed the exploration of alternative avenues. The contemporary alternatives to traditional animal models in biomedical research delve into three main categories of alternative approaches: in vitro models, in vertebrate models, and in silico models. This unique approach to artificial intelligence and machine learning has been a keen interest to be used in different biomedical research. The main goal of this review is to serve as a guide to researchers seeking novel avenues for their investigations and underscores the importance of considering alternative models in the pursuit of scientific knowledge and medical breakthroughs, including showcasing the broad spectrum of modern approaches that are revolutionizing biomedical research and leading the way toward a more ethical, efficient, and innovative future. Models can insight into cellular processes, developmental biology, drug interaction, assessing toxicology, and understanding molecular mechanisms.

Advantages of Using 3D Spheroid Culture Systems in Toxicological and Pharmacological Assessment for Osteogenesis Research

Bone differentiation is crucial for skeletal development and maintenance. Its dysfunction can cause various pathological conditions such as rickets, osteoporosis, osteogenesis imperfecta, or Paget's disease. Although traditional two-dimensional cell culture systems have contributed significantly to our understanding of bone biology, they fail to replicate the intricate biotic environment of bone tissue. Three-dimensional (3D) spheroid cell cultures have gained widespread popularity for addressing bone defects. This review highlights the advantages of employing 3D culture systems to investigate bone differentiation. It highlights their capacity to mimic the complex in vivo environment and crucial cellular interactions pivotal to bone homeostasis. The exploration of 3D culture models in bone research offers enhanced physiological relevance, improved predictive capabilities, and reduced reliance on animal models, which have contributed to the advancement of safer and more effective strategies for drug development. Studies have highlighted the transformative potential of 3D culture systems for expanding our understanding of bone biology and developing targeted therapeutic interventions for bone-related disorders. This review explores how 3D culture systems have demonstrated promise in unraveling the intricate mechanisms governing bone homeostasis and responses to pharmacological agents.

A home-based lifestyle intervention program reduces the tumorigenic potential of triple-negative breast cancer cells

Translational research for the evaluation of physical activity habits and lifestyle modifications based on nutrition and exercise has recently gained attention. In this study, we evaluated the effects of serum samples obtained before and after a 12-week home-based lifestyle intervention based on nutrition and exercise in breast cancer survivors in terms of modulation of the tumorigenic potential of breast cancer cells. The home-based lifestyle intervention proposed in this work consisted of educational counselling on exercise and nutritional behaviors and in 12 weeks of structured home-based exercise. Triple-negative breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 was cultured in semi-solid medium (3D culture) with sera collected before (PRE) and after (POST) the lifestyle intervention program. Spheroid formation was evaluated by counting cell colonies after 3 weeks of incubation. Results show a slight but significant reduction of spheroid formation induced by serum collected POST in comparison to those obtained PRE. Moreover, statistical analyses aimed to find physiologic and metabolic parameters associated with 3D cell proliferation revealed the proliferative inducer IGF-1 as the only predictor of cell tumorigenic potential. These results highlight the importance of lifestyle changes for cancer progression control in a tertiary prevention context. Translational research could offer a useful tool to identify metabolic and physiological changes induced by exercise and nutritional behaviors associated with cancer progression and recurrence risk.

Spheroid Formation and Recovery Using Superhydrophobic Coating for Regenerative Purposes

Cell therapies commonly pursue tissue stimulation for regenerative purposes by replacing cell numbers or supplying for functional deficiencies. To this aim, monodispersed cells are usually transplanted for incorporation by local injection. The limitations of this strategy include poor success associated with cell death, insufficient retention, or cell damage due to shear forces associated with the injection. Spheroids have recently emerged as a model that mimics an in vivo environment with more representative cell-to-cell interactions and better intercellular communication. Nevertheless, cost-effective and lab friendly fabrication and effectively performed recovery are challenges that restrict the broad application of spheroids. In this work, glass surfaces were modified with an environmentally friendly superhydrophobic coating. The superhydrophobic surfaces were used for the 3D spheroid preparation of fibroblasts (3T3 cell line) and keratinocytes (HaCaT cell line). The effectiveness of the spheroids to be recovered and grown under 2D culture conditions was evaluated. The morphology of the migrated cells from the 3D spheroids was characterized at the nano-microscale through 3D profilometry. The results demonstrated improved adhesion and proliferation in the migrated cells, both advanced properties for regenerative applications.