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Ogaya C, Huong N, Touceda-González M, Barg M, Dörfler V, Ehlers RU, Molina C. Monitoring the Photorhabdus spp. bacterial load in Heterorhabditis bacteriophora dauer juveniles over different storage times and temperatures: A molecular approach. J Invertebr Pathol 2024; 203:108048. [PMID: 38159796 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2023.108048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Biological control products based on the entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora can vary in virulence (quality). The influence of their symbiotic bacteria Photorhabdus spp. inside the infective dauer juvenile (DJ) on DJ quality has not received much attention in the past. The presence of the bacteria in the DJ is crucial for its biocontrol potential. This investigation provides a method to quantify the bacterial load inside the DJ based on a qPCR technique. Information from the genome of Photorhabdus laumondii strain DE2 was used to identify single copy genes with no homology to any other bacterial accessions. One gene (hereby named CG2) was selected for primers design and for further qPCR experiments. Cross-amplification tests with P. thracensis and P. kayaii, also symbionts of H. bacteriophora, were positive, whereas no amplicons were produced for P. temperata or Xenorhabdus nematophila. We tested our qPCR system in DJ populations carrying defined proportions of bacteria-free (axenic) vs bacteria-carrying nematodes. With an increasing proportion of axenic DJ in a population, virulence declined, and the virulence was proportional to the amount of bacterial DNA detected in the population by qPCR. Along liquid storage over long time, virulence also decreased, and this factor correlated with the reduction of bacterial DNA on the respective DJ population. We observed that stored DJ kept virulent up to 90 days and thereafter the virulence as well as the amount of bacterial DNA drastically decreased. Storage temperature also influenced the bacterial survival. Inside formulated DJ, the loss of bacterial DNA on the DJ population was accelerated under storage temperatures below 7.5 °C, suggesting that reproduction of the bacterial cells takes place when growth temperature is favorable. The role of bacterial survival inside stored DJ can now be adequately addressed using this molecular quality-control technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Ogaya
- Faculty of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Hermann-Rodewald-Str. 4, 24118 Kiel, Germany; e-nema GmbH, Klausdorfer Str. 28-36, 24223 Schwentinental, Germany
| | - Nontarak Huong
- Department of Biology, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Mike Barg
- e-nema GmbH, Klausdorfer Str. 28-36, 24223 Schwentinental, Germany
| | - Verena Dörfler
- e-nema GmbH, Klausdorfer Str. 28-36, 24223 Schwentinental, Germany
| | - Ralf-Udo Ehlers
- Faculty of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences, Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Hermann-Rodewald-Str. 4, 24118 Kiel, Germany; Department of Biology, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Carlos Molina
- e-nema GmbH, Klausdorfer Str. 28-36, 24223 Schwentinental, Germany.
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Zhang Y, Li H, Wang F, Liu C, Reddy GVP, Li H, Li Z, Sun Y, Zhao Z. Discovery of a new highly pathogenic toxin involved in insect sepsis. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0142223. [PMID: 37787562 PMCID: PMC10715044 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01422-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE As a current biocontrol resource, entomopathogenic nematodes and their symbiotic bacterium can produce many toxin factors to trigger insect sepsis, having the potential to promote sustainable pest management. In this study, we found Steinernema feltiae and Xenorhabdus bovienii were highly virulent against the insects. After infective juvenile injection, Galleria mellonella quickly turned black and softened with increasing esterase activity. Simultaneously, X. bovienii attacked hemocytes and released toxic components, resulting in extensive hemolysis and sepsis. Then, we applied high-resolution mass spectrometry-based metabolomics and found multiple substances were upregulated in the host hemolymph. We found extremely hazardous actinomycin D produced via 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid metabolites. Moreover, a combined transcriptomic analysis revealed that gene expression of proteins associated with actinomycin D was upregulated. Our research revealed actinomycin D might be responsible for the infestation activity of X. bovienii, indicating a new direction for exploring the sepsis mechanism and developing novel biotic pesticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Zhang
- MARA Key Laboratory of Surveillance and Management for Plant Quarantine Pests, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Hao Li
- MARA Key Laboratory of Surveillance and Management for Plant Quarantine Pests, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Fang Wang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Ningxia Academy of Agricultural and Forestry Sciences, Yinchuan, China
| | - Chang Liu
- Institute of Plant Protection, Ningxia Academy of Agricultural and Forestry Sciences, Yinchuan, China
| | - Gadi V. P. Reddy
- Department of Entomology, Lousiana State University, Baton Rouge, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Hu Li
- MARA Key Laboratory of Surveillance and Management for Plant Quarantine Pests, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Sanya Institute of China Agricultural University, China Agricultural University, Sanya, China
| | - Zhihong Li
- MARA Key Laboratory of Surveillance and Management for Plant Quarantine Pests, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Sanya Institute of China Agricultural University, China Agricultural University, Sanya, China
| | - Yucheng Sun
- Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zihua Zhao
- MARA Key Laboratory of Surveillance and Management for Plant Quarantine Pests, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Sanya Institute of China Agricultural University, China Agricultural University, Sanya, China
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Bastin A, Eleftherianos I. Heterorhabditis bacteriophora. Trends Parasitol 2023:S1471-4922(23)00098-3. [PMID: 37188598 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2023.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2023] [Revised: 04/15/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ashley Bastin
- Infection and Innate Immunity Lab, Department of Biological Sciences, The George Washington University, Science and Engineering Hall, 800 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Ioannis Eleftherianos
- Infection and Innate Immunity Lab, Department of Biological Sciences, The George Washington University, Science and Engineering Hall, 800 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20052, USA.
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Garriga A, Toubarro D, Simões N, Morton A, García-Del-Pino F. The modulation effect of the Steinernema carpocapsae - Xenorhabdus nematophila complex on immune-related genes in Drosophila suzukii larvae. J Invertebr Pathol 2023; 196:107870. [PMID: 36493843 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2022.107870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Larvae of the invasive pest Drosophila suzukii are susceptible to the Steinernema carpocapsae - Xenorhabdus nematophila complex and an assessment of the immune-regulatory system activation in this insect was performed to understand the response to the nematode infection. The expressions of 14 immune-related genes of different pathways (Imd, Toll, Jak-STAT, ProPO, JNK, TGF-β) were analyzed using qRT-PCR to determine variations after nematode penetration (90 min and 4 h) and after bacterial release (14 h). Before the bacteria were present, the nematodes were not recognized by the immune system of the larvae and practically none of the analyzed pathways presented variations when compared with the non-infected larvae. However, after the X. nematophila were released, PGRP-LC was activated leading to the gene upregulation of antimicrobial peptides of both the Toll and Imd pathways. Interestingly, the cellular response was inactive during the infection course as Jak/STAT and pro-phenoloxidase genes remained unresponsive to the presence of both pathogens. These results illustrate how D. suzukii immune pathways responded differently to the nematode and bacteria along the infection course.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Garriga
- Departament de Biologia Animal, Biologia Vegetal i Ecologia, Facultat de Biociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - D Toubarro
- Centro de Biotecnologia dos Açores, Departamento de Biologia, Universidade dos Açores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal
| | - N Simões
- Centro de Biotecnologia dos Açores, Departamento de Biologia, Universidade dos Açores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal
| | - A Morton
- Departament de Biologia Animal, Biologia Vegetal i Ecologia, Facultat de Biociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - F García-Del-Pino
- Departament de Biologia Animal, Biologia Vegetal i Ecologia, Facultat de Biociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain.
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Zhang Y, Wang F, Zhao Z. Metabonomics reveals that entomopathogenic nematodes mediate tryptophan metabolites that kill host insects. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1042145. [PMID: 36439848 PMCID: PMC9686292 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1042145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The entomopathogenic nematode (EPN) Steinernema feltiae, which carries the symbiotic bacterium Xenorhabdus bovienii in its gut, is an important biocontrol agent. This EPN could produce a suite of complex metabolites and toxin proteins and lead to the death of host insects within 24–48 h. However, few studies have been performed on the key biomarkers released by EPNs to kill host insects. The objective of this study was to examine what substances produced by EPNs cause the death of host insects. We found that all densities of nematode suspensions exhibited insecticidal activities after hemocoelic injection into Galleria mellonella larvae. EPN infection 9 h later led to immunosuppression by activating insect esterase activity, but eventually, the host insect darkened and died. Before insect immunity was activated, we applied a high-resolution mass spectrometry-based metabolomics approach to determine the hemolymph of the wax moth G. mellonella infected by EPNs. The results indicated that the tryptophan (Trp) pathway of G. mellonella was significantly activated, and the contents of kynurenine (Kyn) and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid (3-HAA) were markedly increased. Additionally, 3-HAA was highly toxic to G. mellonella and resulted in corrected mortalities of 62.50%. Tryptophan metabolites produced by EPNs are a potential marker to kill insects, opening up a novel line of inquiry into exploring the infestation mechanism of EPNs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Zhang
- Department of Plant Biosecurity, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Fang Wang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Ningxia Academy of Agricultural and Forestry Sciences, Ningxia, China
| | - Zihua Zhao
- Department of Plant Biosecurity, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Zihua Zhao,
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Mastore M, Quadroni S, Caramella S, Brivio MF. The Silkworm as a Source of Natural Antimicrobial Preparations: Efficacy on Various Bacterial Strains. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:1339. [PMID: 34827277 PMCID: PMC8614882 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10111339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The global spread of multi-resistant pathogens responsible for infections, which cannot be treated with existing drugs such as antibiotics, is of particular concern. Antibiotics are becoming increasingly ineffective and drug resistance is leading to more difficult-to-treat infections; therefore, new bioactive compounds with antimicrobial activity are needed and new alternative sources should be found. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are synthesized by processes typical of the innate immune system and are present in almost all organisms. Insects are extremely resistant to bacterial infections as they can produce a wide range of AMPs, providing an effective first line of defense. The AMPs produced by insects therefore represent a possible source of natural antimicrobial molecules. In this paper, the possibility of using plasma preparations from silkworm (Bombyx mori) larvae as a source of antimicrobials was evaluated. After simple purification steps, insect plasma was analyzed and tested on different Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains. The results obtained are encouraging as the assays on Escherichia coli and Enterobacter cloacae showed significant decrease in the growth of these Gram-negative bacteria. Similar results were obtained on Gram-positive bacteria, such as Micrococcus luteus and Bacillus subtilis, which showed strong susceptibility to the silkworm AMPs pool. In contrast, Staphylococcus aureus displayed high resistance to Bombyx mori plasma. Finally, the tested plasma formulations were assessed for possible storage not only at 4 °C, but also above room temperature. In conclusion, partially purified plasma from silkworm could be a promising source of AMPs which could be used in formulations for topical applications, without additional and expensive purification steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maristella Mastore
- Laboratory of Comparative Immunology and Parasitology, Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy; (M.M.); (S.C.)
| | - Silvia Quadroni
- Laboratory of Ecology, Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy;
| | - Sara Caramella
- Laboratory of Comparative Immunology and Parasitology, Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy; (M.M.); (S.C.)
| | - Maurizio Francesco Brivio
- Laboratory of Comparative Immunology and Parasitology, Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy; (M.M.); (S.C.)
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Geng T, Lu F, Zhu F, Wang S. Lineage-specific gene evolution of innate immunity in Bombyx mori to adapt to challenge by pathogens, especially entomopathogenic fungi. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 123:104171. [PMID: 34118279 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2021.104171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Bombyx mori is a model species of Lepidoptera, in which 21 gene families and 220 genes have been identified as involved in immunity. However, only 45 B. mori - Drosophila melanogaster - Anopheles gambiae - Apis mellifera - Tribolium castaneum 1:1:1:1:1 orthologous genes were identified. B. mori has unique immune factors not found in D. melanogaster - A. gambiae - A. mellifera - T. castaneum. Pattern recognition receptors, signal transducers and effector genes for antifungal immune responses in B. mori have evolved through expansion and modification of existing genes. This review summarizes the current knowledge of the antifungal immune responses of B. mori and focuses on the lineage-specific gene evolution used by Lepidoptera to adapt to the challenge by pathogens, especially entomopathogenic fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Geng
- Environment and Plant Protection Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou, 571101, China; Sericulture Research Center, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou, 571101, China.
| | - Fuping Lu
- Environment and Plant Protection Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou, 571101, China; Sericulture Research Center, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou, 571101, China.
| | - Feng Zhu
- College of Life Sciences, Zaozhuang University, Zaozhuang, 277160, China.
| | - Shuchang Wang
- Environment and Plant Protection Institute, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou, 571101, China; Sericulture Research Center, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou, 571101, China.
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Secreted virulence factors from Heterorhabditis bacteriophora highlight its utility as a model parasite among Clade V nematodes. Int J Parasitol 2021; 51:321-325. [PMID: 33421438 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2020.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Much of the available knowledge of entomopathogenic virulence factors has been gleaned from studies in the nematode parasite Steinernema carpocapsae, but there is good reason to complement this knowledge with similar studies in Heterorhabditis bacteriophora. Three candidate virulence factors from H. bacteriophora have recently been characterised, and each was demonstrated to contribute to infection. This information can be used not only to advance efforts in the biocontrol of insect pests, but also to make inferences about the emergence of parasitism among Clade V nematodes.
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Special Issue: Insects, Nematodes, and Their Symbiotic Bacteria. INSECTS 2020; 11:insects11090577. [PMID: 32872298 PMCID: PMC7564824 DOI: 10.3390/insects11090577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This special issue contains articles that add to the ever-expanding toolbox of insect pathogenic nematodes (entomopathogenic nematodes; EPNs) as well articles that provide new insights into the mutualistic interaction between EPNs and their hosts. The study of natural infection models such as EPNs allows detailed insight into micro- and macro-evolutionary dynamics of innate immune reactions, including known but also emerging branches of innate immunity. Additional new insights into the kinetics of EPN infections are gained by increased spatiotemporal resolution of advanced transcriptome studies and live imaging.
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