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Spiesman BJ, Gratton C, Gratton E, Hines H. Deep learning for identifying bee species from images of wings and pinned specimens. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0303383. [PMID: 38805521 PMCID: PMC11132477 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0303383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024] Open
Abstract
One of the most challenging aspects of bee ecology and conservation is species-level identification, which is costly, time consuming, and requires taxonomic expertise. Recent advances in the application of deep learning and computer vision have shown promise for identifying large bumble bee (Bombus) species. However, most bees, such as sweat bees in the genus Lasioglossum, are much smaller and can be difficult, even for trained taxonomists, to identify. For this reason, the great majority of bees are poorly represented in the crowdsourced image datasets often used to train computer vision models. But even larger bees, such as bumble bees from the B. vagans complex, can be difficult to separate morphologically. Using images of specimens from our research collections, we assessed how deep learning classification models perform on these more challenging taxa, qualitatively comparing models trained on images of whole pinned specimens or on images of bee forewings. The pinned specimen and wing image datasets represent 20 and 18 species from 6 and 4 genera, respectively, and were used to train the EfficientNetV2L convolutional neural network. Mean test precision was 94.9% and 98.1% for pinned and wing images respectively. Results show that computer vision holds great promise for classifying smaller, more difficult to identify bees that are poorly represented in crowdsourced datasets. Images from research and museum collections will be valuable for expanding classification models to include additional species, which will be essential for large scale conservation monitoring efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian J. Spiesman
- Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, United States of America
| | - Claudio Gratton
- Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America
| | - Elena Gratton
- Department of Entomology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Heather Hines
- Department of Entomology, Penn State University, State College, Pennsylvania, United States of America
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Portman ZM, Gardner J, Lane IG, Gerjets N, Petersen JD, Ascher JS, Arduser M, Evans EC, Boyd C, Thomson R, Cariveau DP. A checklist of the bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea) of Minnesota. Zootaxa 2023; 5304:1-95. [PMID: 37518539 DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5304.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Research studies and conservation actions aimed at improving conditions for bees require a basic understanding of which species are present in a given region. The US state of Minnesota occupies a unique geographic position at the confluence of eastern deciduous forests, northern boreal forests, and western tallgrass prairie, which has led to a diverse and unique bee fauna. In recent years there have been multiple ongoing bee-focused inventory and research projects in Minnesota. Combined with the historic specimens housed in the University of Minnesota Insect Collection and other regional collections, these furnished a wealth of specimens available to form the basis of a statewide checklist. Here, we present the first comprehensive checklist of Minnesota bee species, documenting a total of 508 species in 45 genera. County-level occurrence data is included for each species, and further information on distribution and rarity is included for species of regional or national interest. Some species have their taxonomy clarified, with Perdita citrinella Graenicher, 1910 syn. nov. recognized as a junior synonym of Perdita perpallida Cockerell, 1901, P. bequaerti syn. nov. recognized as a junior synonym of P. pallidipennis Graenicher, 1910 stat. nov., Anthidiellum boreale (Robertson, 1902) stat. nov. recognized as a full species, and Anthidiellium beijingense Portman & Ascher nom. nov. is proposed for A. boreale Wu to resolve the homonymy with A. boreale (Robertson). We further include a list of species that may occur in Minnesota and highlight 11 species occurring in the state that are considered non-native. Recent collecting efforts, as well as increased taxonomic attention paid to Minnesota bees, have resulted in 66 species that have only been documented in the last 10 years. As a first step in determining native bees of conservation concern, we document 38 species that have not been detected in the state during the last 50 years and discuss their conservation status, along with other species for which evidence of decline exists. The checklist of Minnesota bees will continue to grow and change with additional surveys and research studies. In particular, recent surveys have continued to detect new bee species, and many bee groups are in need of taxonomic revision, with the most recent revisions for many genera occurring decades ago. Overall, this checklist strengthens our understanding of the bees of Minnesota and the broader region, informs conservation assessments, and establishes a baseline for faunal change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary M Portman
- Department of Entomology; University of Minnesota; St. Paul; MN; USA 55108.
| | - Joel Gardner
- Department of Entomology; Washington State University; Pullman; WA; USA 99163.
| | - Ian G Lane
- Department of Entomology; University of Minnesota; St. Paul; MN; USA 55108.
| | - Nicole Gerjets
- Minnesota Biological Survey; Minnesota Department of Natural Resources; St. Paul; MN; USA 55155.
| | - Jessica D Petersen
- Minnesota Biological Survey; Minnesota Department of Natural Resources; St. Paul; MN; USA 55155.
| | - John S Ascher
- Insect Diversity Lab; Department of Biological Sciences; National University of Singapore; Singapore 117558.
| | - Mike Arduser
- Conservation Research Institute; Cedarburg; WI; USA 53012.
| | - Elaine C Evans
- Department of Entomology; University of Minnesota; St. Paul; MN; USA 55108.
| | - Crystal Boyd
- National Fish and Wildlife Foundation; Washington; DC USA 20005.
| | - Robin Thomson
- Department of Entomology; University of Minnesota; St. Paul; MN; USA 55108.
| | - Daniel P Cariveau
- Department of Entomology; University of Minnesota; St. Paul; MN; USA 55108.
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Gratton EM, McNeil DJ, Grozinger CM, Hines HM. Local habitat type influences bumble bee pathogen loads and bee species distributions. ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 2023:7150786. [PMID: 37133965 DOI: 10.1093/ee/nvad027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Bumble bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae, Bombus Latreille) perform important ecological services in both managed and natural ecosystems. Anthropogenically induced change has altered floral resources, climate, and insecticide exposure, factors that impact health and disease levels in these bees. Habitat management presents a solution for improving bee health and biodiversity, but this requires better understanding of how different pathogens and bee species respond to habitat conditions. We take advantage of the washboard of repeated ridges (forested) and valleys (mostly developed) in central Pennsylvania to examine whether local variation in habitat type and other landscape factors influence bumble bee community composition and levels of 4 leading pathogens in the common eastern bumble bee, Bombus impatiens Cresson. Loads of viruses (DWV and BQCV) were found to be lowest in forest habitats, whereas loads of a gut parasite, Crithidia bombi, were highest in forests. Ridgetop forests hosted the most diverse bumble bee communities, including several habitat specialists. B. impatiens was most abundant in valleys, and showed higher incidence in areas of greater disturbance, including more developed, unforested, and lower floral resource sites, a pattern which mirrors its success in the face of anthropogenic change. Additionally, DNA barcoding revealed that B. sandersoni is much more common than is apparent from databases. Our results provide evidence that habitat type can play a large role in pathogen load dynamics, but in ways that differ by pathogen type, and point to a need for consideration of habitat at both macro-ecological and local spatial scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena M Gratton
- Department of Entomology, Center for Pollinator Research, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Darin J McNeil
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Christina M Grozinger
- Department of Entomology, Center for Pollinator Research, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Heather M Hines
- Department of Entomology, Center for Pollinator Research, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
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Christophoryová J, Krajčovičová K, Šťáhlavský F, Španiel S, Opatova V. Integrative Taxonomy Approach Reveals Cryptic Diversity within the Phoretic Pseudoscorpion Genus Lamprochernes (Pseudoscorpiones: Chernetidae). INSECTS 2023; 14:122. [PMID: 36835691 PMCID: PMC9964657 DOI: 10.3390/insects14020122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Pseudoscorpions represent an ancient, but homogeneous group of arachnids. The genus Lamprochernes comprises several morphologically similar species with wide and overlapping distributions. We implemented an integrative approach combining molecular barcoding (cox1), with cytogenetic and morphological analyses in order to assess species boundaries in European Lamprochernes populations. The results suggest ancient origins of Lamprochernes species accompanied by morphological stasis within the genus. Our integrative approach delimited three nominal Lamprochernes species and one cryptic lineage Lamprochernes abditus sp. nov. Despite its Oligocene origin, L. abditus sp. nov. can be distinguished from its closest relative only by molecular and cytogenetic differences, or alternatively, by a complex multivariate morphometric analysis involving other Lamprochernes species. The population structure and common haplotype sharing across geographically distant populations in most Lamprochernes species suggest that a phoretic manner of dispersal is efficient in this group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Christophoryová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Mlynská Dolina, Ilkovičova 6, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Katarína Krajčovičová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Mlynská Dolina, Ilkovičova 6, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - František Šťáhlavský
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 128 44 Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Stanislav Španiel
- Institute of Botany, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská Cesta 9, 845 23 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Vera Opatova
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 128 44 Praha, Czech Republic
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Hines HM, Kilpatrick SK, Mikó I, Snellings D, López-Uribe MM, Tian L. The diversity, evolution, and development of setal morphologies in bumble bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Bombus spp.). PeerJ 2022; 10:e14555. [PMID: 36573237 PMCID: PMC9789693 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.14555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Bumble bees are characterized by their thick setal pile that imparts aposematic color patterns often used for species-level identification. Like all bees, the single-celled setae of bumble bees are branched, an innovation thought important for pollen collection. To date no studies have quantified the types of setal morphologies and their distribution on these bees, information that can facilitate understanding of their adaptive ecological function. This study defines several major setal morphotypes in the common eastern bumble bee Bombus impatiens Cresson, revealing these setal types differ by location across the body. The positions of these types of setae are similar across individuals, castes, and sexes within species. We analyzed the distribution of the two most common setal types (plumose and spinulate) across the body dorsum of half of the described bumble bee species. This revealed consistently high density of plumose (long-branched) setae across bumble bees on the head and mesosoma, but considerable variation in the amount of metasomal plumosity. Variation on the metasoma shows strong phylogenetic signal at subgeneric and smaller group levels, making it a useful trait for species delimitation research, and plumosity has increased from early Bombus ancestors. The distribution of these setal types suggests these setae may serve several functions, including pollen-collecting and thermoregulatory roles, and probable mechanosensory functions. This study further examines how and when setae of the pile develop, evidence for mechanosensory function, and the timing of pigmentation as a foundation for future genetic and developmental research in these bees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather M. Hines
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States,Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Shelby Kerrin Kilpatrick
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States,Department of Entomology, Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas, United States
| | - István Mikó
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States,Department of Biological Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire, United States
| | - Daniel Snellings
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States,Division of Genetics & Genomics, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States
| | - Margarita M. López-Uribe
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Li Tian
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States,Department of Entomology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
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Averill AL, Couto AV, Andersen JC, Elkinton JS. Parasite Prevalence May Drive the Biotic Impoverishment of New England (USA) Bumble Bee Communities. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12100941. [PMID: 34680710 PMCID: PMC8539347 DOI: 10.3390/insects12100941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Simple Summary Here we discuss widespread changes in the community structure of bumble bees (Bombus spp.) found in the coastal-zone community of New England. One species in particular, Bombus impatiens Cresson, 1863, has increased in relative abundance nearly 45% since the 1990s to become the dominant species in the region, representing nearly 75% of all Bombus individuals collected in our studies. These changes in abundance may be, in part, due to differences in infection rates by microparasites, with B. impatiens having significantly fewer microparasites than several other less common and declining Bombus species. We discuss the possible role of microparasites in influencing the community composition of Bombus species in our region, and how these infections might be compounding declines in conjunction with habitat loss and climate change. Abstract Numerous studies have reported a diversity of stressors that may explain continental-scale declines in populations of native pollinators, particularly those in the genus Bombus. However, there has been little focus on the identification of the local-scale dynamics that may structure currently impoverished Bombus communities. For example, the historically diverse coastal-zone communities of New England (USA) now comprise only a few species and are primarily dominated by a single species, B. impatiens. To better understand the local-scale factors that might be influencing this change in community structure, we examined differences in the presence of parasites in different species of Bombus collected in coastal-zone communities. Our results indicate that Bombus species that are in decline in this region were more likely to harbor parasites than are B. impatiens populations, which were more likely to be parasite-free and to harbor fewer intense infections or co-infections. The contrasting parasite burden between co-occurring winners and losers in this community may impact the endgame of asymmetric contests among species competing for dwindling resources. We suggest that under changing climate and landscape conditions, increasing domination of communities by healthy, synanthropic Bombus species (such as B. impatiens) may be another factor hastening the further erosion of bumble bee diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne L. Averill
- Department of Environmental Conservation, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA; (J.C.A.); (J.S.E.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-413-545-1054
| | - Andrea V. Couto
- Department of Computer Science, Bridgewater State University, Bridgewater, MA 02324, USA;
| | - Jeremy C. Andersen
- Department of Environmental Conservation, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA; (J.C.A.); (J.S.E.)
| | - Joseph S. Elkinton
- Department of Environmental Conservation, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, USA; (J.C.A.); (J.S.E.)
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Spiesman BJ, Gratton C, Hatfield RG, Hsu WH, Jepsen S, McCornack B, Patel K, Wang G. Assessing the potential for deep learning and computer vision to identify bumble bee species from images. Sci Rep 2021; 11:7580. [PMID: 33828196 PMCID: PMC8027374 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-87210-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Pollinators are undergoing a global decline. Although vital to pollinator conservation and ecological research, species-level identification is expensive, time consuming, and requires specialized taxonomic training. However, deep learning and computer vision are providing ways to open this methodological bottleneck through automated identification from images. Focusing on bumble bees, we compare four convolutional neural network classification models to evaluate prediction speed, accuracy, and the potential of this technology for automated bee identification. We gathered over 89,000 images of bumble bees, representing 36 species in North America, to train the ResNet, Wide ResNet, InceptionV3, and MnasNet models. Among these models, InceptionV3 presented a good balance of accuracy (91.6%) and average speed (3.34 ms). Species-level error rates were generally smaller for species represented by more training images. However, error rates also depended on the level of morphological variability among individuals within a species and similarity to other species. Continued development of this technology for automatic species identification and monitoring has the potential to be transformative for the fields of ecology and conservation. To this end, we present BeeMachine, a web application that allows anyone to use our classification model to identify bumble bees in their own images.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian J Spiesman
- Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA.
| | - Claudio Gratton
- Department of Entomology, University of Wiscosin - Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | | | - William H Hsu
- Department of Computer Science, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Sarina Jepsen
- The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Brian McCornack
- Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
| | - Krushi Patel
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Guanghui Wang
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA.,Department of Computer Science, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada
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