1
|
Khositharattanakool P, Pathawong N, Pongsiri A, Pengsakul T, Ponlawat A, Somwang P. Trypanosoma infection and bloodmeal analysis in post-feeding sand flies across Thailand. Acta Trop 2024; 258:107343. [PMID: 39098750 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2024.107343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2024] [Revised: 07/28/2024] [Accepted: 07/30/2024] [Indexed: 08/06/2024]
Abstract
Phlebotomine sand flies are recognized as a primary vector of Leishmania and are also suspected vectors of Trypanosoma. The transmission cycle of these parasites relies on the distribution of sand fly vectors, parasites, and reservoir animals. This study aimed to detect Leishmania and Trypanosoma DNA and identify the sources of bloodmeals in post-feeding sand flies captured across Thailand. A total of 42,911 field female sand flies were collected from 11 provinces across Thailand using CDC light traps. Among these, 253 post-feeding sand flies were selected for analysis. The predominant species in this study was Sergentomyia khawi (33.60 %). The DNA was extracted from individual female sand flies. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), specific to the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) and the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene regions were used to detect the presence of Leishmania and Trypanosoma DNA, respectively. Additionally, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene region was utilized to identify the sources of host bloodmeals. Leishmania DNA was not detected in any specimens. The analysis of SSU rRNA sequences revealed the presence of Trypanosoma DNA (11.46 %, 29/253) in sand fly samples. Among these samples, T. noyesi (1.58 %, 4/253) was identified in Idiophlebotomus longiforceps and Phlebotomus asperulus, Trypanosoma Anura01+02/Frog2 (1.18 %, 3/253) in Se. khawi, and Trypanosoma Anura04/Frog1 (8.70 %, 22/253) in Se. khawi, Se. hivernus and Grossomyia indica. Bloodmeal analysis utilizing the COI gene revealed a diverse range of vertebrate hosts' blood, including bird, bat, frog and sun skink. Our findings confirm the presence of Trypanosoma DNA and identify the sources of bloodmeals from vertebrate hosts in various sand fly species, suggesting their potential as possible vectors for Trypanosoma in Thailand. Furthermore, our study is the first to provide molecular evidence using the COI gene to identify frogs as a host blood source for sand flies in Thailand. Further studies focusing on the isolation of live parasites in sand flies to confirm vector potential and examining the role of animal reservoirs will enhance our understanding of the host-parasite relationship and enable more efficient control for disease transmission.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pathamet Khositharattanakool
- School of Medicine, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand; Biomedical Technology Research Group for Vulnerable Populations, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand
| | - Nattaphol Pathawong
- Vector Biology and Control Section, Department of Entomology, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences (AFRIMS), Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Arissara Pongsiri
- Vector Biology and Control Section, Department of Entomology, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences (AFRIMS), Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Theerakamol Pengsakul
- Faculty of Environmental Management, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90110, Thailand; Health and Environmental Research Center (HERC), Faculty of Environmental Management, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla 90110, Thailand
| | - Alongkot Ponlawat
- Vector Biology and Control Section, Department of Entomology, Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences (AFRIMS), Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Puckavadee Somwang
- School of Medicine, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand; Biomedical Technology Research Group for Vulnerable Populations, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ampol R, Somwang P, Khositharattanakool P, Promrangsee C, Pataradool T, Tepboonreung P, Siriyasatien P, Preativatanyou K. Nanopore-Based Surveillance of Leishmania Parasites in Culicoides Latrielle (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) Caught from the Affected Community and Tham Phra Cave in Chiang Rai Province, the Endemic Area of Leishmaniasis in Northern Thailand. INSECTS 2024; 15:327. [PMID: 38786883 PMCID: PMC11122411 DOI: 10.3390/insects15050327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2024] [Revised: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
In this research, we elucidated the species composition of Culicoides biting midges, infection prevalence, and genetic diversity of Leishmania parasites circulating in the affected community in Chiang Rai Province, being the most endemic area in Northern Thailand. A total of 146 parous and gravid females, belonging to at least twelve Culicoides species in five subgenera and one species group, were trapped from three collection sites with an overall Leishmania prevalence of 26.7% (39/146). Leishmania was detected, using ITS1-PCR, in C. mahasarakamense (15), C. guttifer (11), C. (Trithecoides) spp. (8), C. jacobsoni (2), C. oxystoma (2), and C. orientalis (1). The evidence of Leishmania infection in these last five species represents new records in Northern Thailand. Given a high infection rate in cavernicolous specimens, this indicates an increased risk of parasite exposure when visiting the cave. Using the nanopore amplicon sequencing, L. martiniquensis was ubiquitously identified in all positives, and more than half of these were also co-infected with L. orientalis. The genetic diversity analysis revealed 13 and 17 unique haplotypes for L. martiniquensis and L. orientalis, respectively. Higher haplotype diversity and relatively low nucleotide diversity were observed in both parasite populations, suggesting recent population divergence. Neutrality tests (Tajima's D and Fu and Li's D) showed to be significantly negative, indicating rapid population growth or a selective sweep. Moreover, dominant haplotypes of both Leishmania species were 100% identical to those in all leishmaniasis patients previously reported from Northern Thailand, strongly supporting the imperative role of Culicoides spp. in disease transmission. Essentially, this research provides the first entomological surveillance data representing the sympatric existence, transmission dynamics, and genetic complexity of two autochthonous Leishmania (Mundinia) parasites in several Culicoides species in the endemic area of Northern Thailand. This would contribute to a more complete understanding of the epidemiology of vector infection and facilitate the development of vector control programs to effectively reduce the transmission of this neglected tropical disease in endemic areas of Northern Thailand.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rinnara Ampol
- Center of Excellence in Vector Biology and Vector-Borne Disease, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (R.A.); (T.P.); (P.S.)
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Puckavadee Somwang
- Biomedical Technology Research Group for Vulnerable Populations, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand; (P.S.); (P.K.)
- School of Medicine, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand
| | - Pathamet Khositharattanakool
- Biomedical Technology Research Group for Vulnerable Populations, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand; (P.S.); (P.K.)
- School of Medicine, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand
| | - Chulaluk Promrangsee
- Interdisciplinary Program of Biomedical Sciences, Graduate School, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand;
| | - Thanapat Pataradool
- Center of Excellence in Vector Biology and Vector-Borne Disease, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (R.A.); (T.P.); (P.S.)
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Medical Science Program, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand;
| | - Piyapat Tepboonreung
- Medical Science Program, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand;
| | - Padet Siriyasatien
- Center of Excellence in Vector Biology and Vector-Borne Disease, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (R.A.); (T.P.); (P.S.)
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Kanok Preativatanyou
- Center of Excellence in Vector Biology and Vector-Borne Disease, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (R.A.); (T.P.); (P.S.)
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Preativatanyou K, Chinwirunsirisup K, Phumee A, Khositharattanakool P, Sunantaraporn S, Depaquit J, Siriyasatien P. Species diversity of phlebotomine sand flies and sympatric occurrence of Leishmania (Mundinia) martiniquensis, Leishmania (Leishmania) donovani complex, and Trypanosoma spp. in the visceral leishmaniasis focus of southern Thailand. Acta Trop 2023; 244:106949. [PMID: 37211153 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2023.106949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Autochthonous leishmaniasis in Thailand has recently been a public health concern due to an increasing number of new clinical cases. Most indigenous cases were diagnosed with Leishmania (Mundinia) martiniquensis, and Leishmania (Mundinia) orientalis. However, some doubts regarding vector misidentification have arisen and need to be elucidated. Accordingly, we aimed to assess the species composition of sand flies and determine the molecular prevalence of trypanosomatids in the transmission area of leishmaniasis in southern Thailand. In the present study, a total of 569 sand flies were caught from the vicinity of a visceral leishmaniasis patient's house in Na Thawi District, Songkhla Province. Of these, 229 parous and gravid females consisted of Sergentomyia khawi, Se. barraudi, Phlebotomus stantoni, Grassomyia indica, and Se. hivernus, accounting for 31.4%, 30.6%, 29.7%, 7.9%, and 0.4%, respectively. However, Se. gemmea, which has previously been proposed as the most abundant species and putative vector of visceral leishmaniasis, was not found in the present study. Based on ITS1-PCR and sequence analysis, two specimens of Gr. indica and Ph. stantoni showed positive amplification of L. martiniquensis and L. donovani complex, respectively, the first one being presumed indigenous and the second one being not. Anuran Trypanosoma was also molecularly detected using SSU rRNA-PCR and ubiquitously found in sixteen specimens of four dominant sand fly species except for Se. hivernus. The obtained sequences could be phylogenetically categorized into the two major amphibian clades (An04/Frog1 and An01+An02/Frog2). The existence of the monophyletic subgroup and distinct lineage suggests them as novel Trypanosoma species. The TCS network analysis of these anuran Trypanosoma sequences also revealed high haplotype diversity (Hd = 0.925 ± 0.050), but low nucleotide diversity (π = 0.019 ± 0.009). Furthermore, the living anuran trypanosomes were microscopically demonstrated in a single specimen of Gr. indica, supporting the vectorial capacity. Importantly, our data confirmed the scarcity of Se. gemmea and also uncovered, for the first time, the co-circulation of L. martiniquensis, L. donovani complex, and suspected novel anuran Trypanosoma spp. in phlebotomine sand files, implicating their potential role as vectors of trypanosomatid parasites. Therefore, the novel data from this study would greatly facilitate the comprehension of the complexity of trypanosomatid transmission and the establishment of prevention and control measures for this neglected disease more effectively.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kanok Preativatanyou
- Center of Excellence in Vector Biology and Vector-Borne Disease, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand.
| | - Komson Chinwirunsirisup
- Center of Excellence in Vector Biology and Vector-Borne Disease, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Atchara Phumee
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Allied Health Sciences, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand; Excellent Center for Dengue and Community Public Health (EC for DACH), Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
| | - Pathamet Khositharattanakool
- School of Medicine, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand; Biomedical Technology Research Group for Vulnerable Populations, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand
| | - Sakone Sunantaraporn
- Center of Excellence in Vector Biology and Vector-Borne Disease, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Jérôme Depaquit
- Faculté de Pharmacie, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, SFR Cap Santé, EA7510 ESCAPE-USC ANSES VECPAR, Reims, France
| | - Padet Siriyasatien
- Center of Excellence in Vector Biology and Vector-Borne Disease, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Castillo-Castañeda AC, Patiño LH, Zuñiga MF, Cantillo-Barraza O, Ayala MS, Segura M, Bautista J, Urbano P, Jaimes-Dueñez J, Ramírez JD. An overview of the trypanosomatid (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) parasites infecting several mammal species in Colombia. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:471. [PMID: 36522757 PMCID: PMC9756507 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05595-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trypanosomatids are among the most critical parasites for public health due to their impact on human, animal, and plant health. Diseases associated with these pathogens manifest mainly in poor and vulnerable populations, where social, environmental, and biological factors modulate the case incidence and geographical distribution. METHODS We used Sanger and amplicon-based next-generation sequencing (NGS) in samples from different mammals to identify trypanosomatid infections in several departments in Colombia. A total of 174 DNA samples (18 humans, 83 dogs, and 73 wild mammals) were analyzed by conventional PCR using a fragment of the heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) gene and Sanger sequenced the positive samples. Twenty-seven samples were sent for amplicon-based NGS using the same gene fragment. Data obtained were used to perform diversity analyses. RESULTS One hundred and thirteen samples were positive for PCR by Hsp70 fragment; these corresponded to 22.1% Leishmania spp., 18.6% L. amazonensis, 9.7% L. braziliensis, 14.2% L. infantum, 8% L. panamensis, and 27.4% Trypanosoma cruzi. Comparison of the identified species by the two sequencing technologies used resulted in 97% concordance. Alpha and beta diversity indices were significant, mainly for dogs; there was an interesting index of coinfection events in the analyzed samples: different Leishmania species and the simultaneous presence of T. cruzi and even T. rangeli in one of the samples analyzed. Moreover, a low presence of L. braziliensis was observed in samples from wild mammals. Interestingly, to our knowledge, this is the first report of Leishmania detection in Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris (capybara) in Colombia. CONCLUSIONS The Hsp70 fragment used in this study is an optimal molecular marker for trypanosomatid identification in many hosts and allows the identification of different species in the same sample when amplicon-based sequencing is used. However, the use of this fragment for molecular diagnosis through conventional PCR should be carefully interpreted because of this same capacity to identify several parasites. This point is of pivotal importance in highly endemic countries across South America because of the co-circulation of different genera from the Trypanosomatidae family. The findings show an interesting starting point for One Health approaches in which coevolution and vector-host interactions can be studied.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adriana C. Castillo-Castañeda
- grid.412191.e0000 0001 2205 5940Centro de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Biotecnología-UR (CIMBIUR), Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Luz H. Patiño
- grid.412191.e0000 0001 2205 5940Centro de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Biotecnología-UR (CIMBIUR), Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Maria Fernanda Zuñiga
- grid.412191.e0000 0001 2205 5940Centro de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Biotecnología-UR (CIMBIUR), Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Omar Cantillo-Barraza
- grid.412191.e0000 0001 2205 5940Centro de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Biotecnología-UR (CIMBIUR), Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Colombia ,grid.412881.60000 0000 8882 5269Grupo de Biología y Control de Enfermedades Infecciosas (BCEI), Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Martha S. Ayala
- grid.419226.a0000 0004 0614 5067Grupo de Parasitología, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Maryi Segura
- grid.419226.a0000 0004 0614 5067Grupo de Parasitología, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Jessica Bautista
- grid.419226.a0000 0004 0614 5067Grupo de Parasitología, Instituto Nacional de Salud, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Plutarco Urbano
- Grupo de Investigaciones Biológicas de La Orinoquía, Universidad Internacional del Trópico Americano (Unitropico), Yopal, Colombia
| | - Jeiczon Jaimes-Dueñez
- grid.442158.e0000 0001 2300 1573Grupo de Investigación en Ciencias Animales GRICA, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia UCC, Bucaramanga, Colombia
| | - Juan David Ramírez
- grid.412191.e0000 0001 2205 5940Centro de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Biotecnología-UR (CIMBIUR), Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad del Rosario, Bogotá, Colombia ,grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Pathology, Molecular and Cell-Based Medicine, Molecular Microbiology Laboratory, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Sunantaraporn S, Hortiwakul T, Kraivichian K, Siriyasatien P, Brownell N. Molecular Identification of Host Blood Meals and Detection of Blood Parasites in Culicoides Latreille (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) Collected from Phatthalung Province, Southern Thailand. INSECTS 2022; 13:insects13100912. [PMID: 36292860 PMCID: PMC9604321 DOI: 10.3390/insects13100912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Five hundred and fifty-nine female biting midges were collected, and seventeen species in six subgenera (Avaritia, Haemophoructus, Hoffmania, Meijerehelea, Remmia, and Trithecoides) and two groups (Clavipalpis and Shortti) were identified. The dominant Culicoides species was C. peregrinus (30.94%), followed by C. subgenus Trithecoides. From blood meal analysis of engorged biting midges, they were found to feed on cows, dogs, pigs, and avians. The majority of blood preferences of biting midges (68%; 49/72) displayed a mixed pattern of host blood DNA (cow and avian). The overall non-engorged biting midge field infectivity rate was 1.44 % (7/487). We detected Leucocytozoon sp. in three Culicoides specimens, one from each species: C. fulvus, C. oxystoma, and C. subgenus Trithecoides. Crithidia sp. was found in two C. peregrinus specimens, and Trypanosoma sp. and P. juxtanucleare were separately found in two C. guttifer. More consideration should be paid to the capacity of biting midges to transmit pathogens such as avian haemosporidian and trypanosomatid parasites. To demonstrate that these biting midges are natural vectors of trypanosomatid parasites, additional research must be conducted with a greater number of biting midges in other endemic regions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sakone Sunantaraporn
- Medical Science Program, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Vector Biology and Vector Borne Diseases, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Thanaporn Hortiwakul
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla 90110, Thailand
| | - Kanyarat Kraivichian
- Center of Excellence in Vector Biology and Vector Borne Diseases, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Padet Siriyasatien
- Center of Excellence in Vector Biology and Vector Borne Diseases, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Narisa Brownell
- Center of Excellence in Vector Biology and Vector Borne Diseases, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Hustedt J, Prasetyo DB, Fiorenzano JM, von Fricken ME, Hertz JC. Phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Psychodidae) and sand fly-borne pathogens in the Greater Mekong Subregion: a systematic review. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:355. [PMID: 36199150 PMCID: PMC9533508 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05464-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Phlebotomine sand flies are proven or suspected vectors of several pathogens of importance, including leishmaniasis, bartonellosis and sand fly fevers. Although sand flies have a worldwide distribution, there has been limited research published on sand flies and sand fly-borne pathogens throughout the Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS). This review followed the PRISMA guidelines to determine the biodiversity and presence of phlebotomine sand flies and their associated pathogens in the GMS, specifically Cambodia, Thailand, the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Laos), Malaysia and Vietnam. A total of 1472 records were identified by searching electronic databases, scanning reference lists of articles and consulting experts in the field. After screening of title and abstracts, 178 records remained and were further screened for original data (n = 34), not having regional data (n = 14), duplication of data (n = 4), records not available (n = 4) and no language translation available (n = 2). A total of 120 studies were then included for full review, with 41 studies on sand fly-related disease in humans, 33 studies on sand fly-related disease in animals and 54 entomological studies focused on sand flies (5 papers contained data on > 1 category), with a majority of the overall data from Thailand. There were relatively few studies on each country, with the exception of Thailand, and the studies applied different methods to investigate sand flies and sand fly-borne diseases, impacting the ability to conduct meaningful meta-analysis. The findings suggest that leishmaniasis in humans and the presence of sand fly vectors have been reported across several GMS countries over the past 100 years, with local transmission in humans confirmed in Thailand and Vietnam. Additionally, local Mundinia species are likely transmitted by biting midges. Findings from this study provide a framework for future investigations to determine the geographic distribution and risk profiles of leishmaniasis and other associated sand fly-borne disease throughout the GMS. It is recommended that researchers expand surveillance efforts across the GMS, with an emphasis placed on entomological surveys, syndromic and asymptomatic monitoring in both humans and animals and molecular characterization of sand flies and sand fly-borne pathogens, particularly in the understudied countries of Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John Hustedt
- Vysnova Partners, AXA Tower, 8 Shenton Way, Level 34-01, Singapore, Singapore.
| | - Didot Budi Prasetyo
- Entomology Division, Emerging Infections Department, U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit Two, Sembawang, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jodi M Fiorenzano
- Entomology Division, Emerging Infections Department, U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit Two, Sembawang, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Michael E von Fricken
- Department of Global and Community Health, College of Health and Human Services, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA
| | - Jeffrey C Hertz
- Entomology Division, Emerging Infections Department, U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit Two, Sembawang, Singapore, Singapore
| |
Collapse
|