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Curtin D, Taylor EM, Bellgrove MA, Chong TTJ, Coxon JP. Dopamine D2 Receptor Modulates Exercise Related Effect on Cortical Excitation/Inhibition and Motor Skill Acquisition. J Neurosci 2024; 44:e2028232024. [PMID: 38553046 PMCID: PMC11079968 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2028-23.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 03/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Exercise is known to benefit motor skill learning in health and neurological disease. Evidence from brain stimulation, genotyping, and Parkinson's disease studies converge to suggest that the dopamine D2 receptor, and shifts in the cortical excitation and inhibition (E:I) balance, are prime candidates for the drivers of exercise-enhanced motor learning. However, causal evidence using experimental pharmacological challenge is lacking. We hypothesized that the modulatory effect of the dopamine D2 receptor on exercise-induced changes in the E:I balance would determine the magnitude of motor skill acquisition. To test this, we measured exercise-induced changes in excitation and inhibition using paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in 22 healthy female and male humans, and then had participants learn a novel motor skill-the sequential visual isometric pinch task (SVIPT). We examined the effect of D2 receptor blockade (800 mg sulpiride) on these measures within a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled design. Our key result was that motor skill acquisition was driven by an interaction between the D2 receptor and E:I balance. Specifically, poorer skill learning was related to an attenuated shift in the E:I balance in the sulpiride condition, whereas this interaction was not evident in placebo. Our results demonstrate that exercise-primed motor skill acquisition is causally influenced by D2 receptor activity on motor cortical circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan Curtin
- School of Psychological Sciences, Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Eleanor M Taylor
- School of Psychological Sciences, Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Mark A Bellgrove
- School of Psychological Sciences, Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Trevor T-J Chong
- School of Psychological Sciences, Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
- Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, St Vincent's Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria 3065, Australia
| | - James P Coxon
- School of Psychological Sciences, Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
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Curtin D, Taylor EM, Bellgrove MA, Chong TTJ, Coxon JP. D2 receptor blockade eliminates exercise-induced changes in cortical inhibition and excitation. Brain Stimul 2023; 16:727-733. [PMID: 37100200 DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2023.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although cardiorespiratory exercise is known to affect cortical excitatory and inhibitory activity, the neurochemical mechanisms driving this effect are poorly understood. Animal models of Parkinson's disease identify dopamine D2 receptor expression as a candidate mechanism, but the link between the D2 receptor and exercise-induced changes in cortical activity in humans is unknown. OBJECTIVE Here, we examined the effect of a selective dopamine D2 receptor antagonist, sulpiride, on exercise-induced changes in cortical activity. METHODS We acquired measures of excitatory and inhibitory activity of the primary motor cortex using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) from 23 healthy adults, both before and after a 20-min bout of high-intensity interval cycling exercise. We examined the effect of D2 receptor blockade (800 mg sulpiride) on these measures within a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover design. RESULTS Sulpiride abolished exercise-induced modulation of the cortical excitation:inhibition balance relative to placebo (P < 0.001, Cohen's d = 1.76). Sulpiride blocked both the increase in glutamatergic excitation and reduction in gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) inhibition that was observed following exercise in the placebo condition. CONCLUSION Our results provide causal evidence that D2 receptor blockade eliminates exercise-induced changes in excitatory and inhibitory cortical networks, and have implications for how exercise should be prescribed in diseases of dopaminergic dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan Curtin
- The Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Eleanor M Taylor
- The Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Mark A Bellgrove
- The Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Victoria, 3800, Australia
| | - Trevor T-J Chong
- The Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Victoria, 3800, Australia; Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, Victoria, 3004, Australia; Department of Clinical Neurosciences, St Vincent's Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, 3065, Australia
| | - James P Coxon
- The Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Victoria, 3800, Australia.
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Exercise Effects on Motor Skill Consolidation and Intermuscular Coherence Depend on Practice Schedule. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12040436. [PMID: 35447968 PMCID: PMC9030594 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12040436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardiorespiratory or aerobic exercise immediately after practice of an upper-extremity motor skill task can facilitate skill consolidation, as demonstrated by enhanced performances at 24 h and 7-day retention tests. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of acute cardiorespiratory exercise on motor skill consolidation when skill practice involved low and high levels of contextual interference introduced through repetitive and interleaved practice schedules, respectively. Forty-eight young healthy adults were allocated to one of four groups who performed either repetitive or interleaved practice of a pinch grip motor sequence task, followed by either a period of seated rest or a bout of high-intensity interval cycling. At pre- and post-practice and 24 h and 7-day retention tests, we assessed motor skill performance and β-band (15–35 Hz) intermuscular coherence using surface electromyography (EMG) collected from the abductor pollicis brevis and first dorsal interosseous. At the 7-day retention test, off-line consolidation was enhanced in the cardiorespiratory exercise relative to the rest group, but only among individuals who performed interleaved motor skill practice (p = 0.02). Similarly, at the 7-day retention test, β-band intermuscular coherence increased to a greater extent in the exercise group than in the rest group for those who performed interleaved practice (p = 0.02). Under the present experimental conditions, cardiorespiratory exercise preferentially supported motor skill consolidation and change in intermuscular coherence when motor skill practice involved higher rather than lower levels of contextual interference.
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Toldo JMP, Arjona M, Campos Neto GC, Vitor T, Nogueira SA, Amaro E, Saba RA, Silva SMCA, Ferraz HB, Felício AC. Virtual Rehabilitation in Parkinson Disease: A Dopamine Transporter Imaging Study. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2021; 100:359-366. [PMID: 33727518 DOI: 10.1097/phm.0000000000001574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of the study was to verify the effect of a virtual rehabilitation protocol for patients with Parkinson disease, primarily assessing striatal dopamine transporters and secondarily motor symptoms and quality of life. DESIGN Nineteen patients with Parkinson disease underwent an 8-wk virtual rehabilitation protocol using XBOX 360S. Evaluation of dopamine transporters was performed by single-photon emission computed tomography using TRODAT-1 as the radioligand. Participants were clinically assessed using the Unified Parkinson Disease Rating Scale to quantify motor symptoms. Moreover, the Parkinson Disease Questionnaire and Short-Form Health Status Survey were used to assess quality of life and the Berg Balance Scale to assess balance. RESULTS Regarding our primary outcome, dopamine transporter was significantly increased in the putamen contralateral to the clinically most affected body side (P = 0.034) considering preintervention and postintervention measurements. Furthermore, we observed significant improvement in Unified Parkinson Disease Rating Scale (10-point reduction, P = 0.001), Parkinson Disease Questionnaire (11.3-point reduction, P = 0.001), Short-Form Health Status Survey ("Functional capacity," P = 0.001; "Pain," P = 0.006; and "Mental Health" domains, P < 0.001), and Berg Balance Scale (5-point increase, P = 0.015). CONCLUSIONS In our group of Parkinson disease patients, this virtual rehabilitation protocol enabled a dopamine transporter increase in the region of the putamen contralateral to the clinically most affected body side. Moreover, motor signs and quality of life were significantly improved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana M P Toldo
- From the Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, São Paulo, Brazil (JMPT, MA, GCCN, TV, SAN, EAJ, ACF); Instituto de Assistência Médica ao Servidor Público Estadual de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil (RAS, SMCAS); and Universidade Federal de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil (RAS, SMCAS, HBF)
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Wanner P, Winterholler M, Gaßner H, Winkler J, Klucken J, Pfeifer K, Steib S. Acute exercise following skill practice promotes motor memory consolidation in Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2020; 178:107366. [PMID: 33358765 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2020.107366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Acute cardiovascular exercise has shown to promote neuroplastic processes supporting the consolidation of newly acquired motor skills in healthy adults. First results suggest that this concept may be transferred to populations with motor and cognitive dysfunctions. In this context, Parkinson's disease (PD) is highly relevant since patients demonstrate deficits in motor learning. Hence, in the present study we sought to explore the effect of a single post-practice exercise bout on motor memory consolidation in PD. For this purpose, 17 patients with PD (Hoehn and Yahr: 1 - 2.5, age: 60.1 ± 7.9 y) practiced a whole-body skill followed by either (i) a moderate-intense bout of cycling, or (ii) seated rest for a total of 30 min. The motor skill required the participants to balance on a tiltable platform (stabilometer) for 30 s. During skill practice, participants performed 15 trials followed by a retention test 1 day and 7 days later. We calculated time in balance (platform within ± 5° from horizontal) for each trial and within- and between-group differences in memory consolidation (i.e. offline learning = skill change from last acquisition block to retention tests) were analyzed. Groups revealed similar improvements during skill practice (F4,60 = 0.316, p = 0.866), but showed differences in offline learning, which were only evident after 7 days (F1,14 = 5.602, p = 0.033). Our results suggest that a single post-practice exercise bout is effective in enhancing long-term motor memory consolidation in a population with motor learning impairments. This may point at unique promoting effects of exercise on dopamine neurotransmission involved in memory formation. Future studies should investigate the potential role of exercise-induced effects on the dopaminergic system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Wanner
- Department of Sport Science and Sport, Division of Exercise and Health, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany
| | | | - Heiko Gaßner
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany
| | - Jürgen Winkler
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany
| | - Jochen Klucken
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany
| | - Klaus Pfeifer
- Department of Sport Science and Sport, Division of Exercise and Health, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany
| | - Simon Steib
- Department of Sport Science and Sport, Division of Exercise and Health, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Germany; Institute of Sports and Sports Sciences, Human Movement, Training and Active Aging Department, Heidelberg University, Germany.
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de Las Heras B, Rodrigues L, Cristini J, Weiss M, Prats-Puig A, Roig M. Does the Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Val66Met Polymorphism Modulate the Effects of Physical Activity and Exercise on Cognition? Neuroscientist 2020; 28:69-86. [PMID: 33300425 DOI: 10.1177/1073858420975712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The Val66Met is a polymorphism of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene that encodes a substitution of a valine (Val) to methionine (Met) amino acid. Carrying this polymorphism reduces the activity-dependent secretion of the BDNF protein, which can potentially affect brain plasticity and cognition. We reviewed the biology of Val66Met and surveyed 26 studies (11,417 participants) that examined the role of this polymorphism in moderating the cognitive response to physical activity (PA) and exercise. Nine observational studies confirmed a moderating effect of Val66Met on the cognitive response to PA but differences between Val and Met carriers were inconsistent and only significant in some cognitive domains. Only five interventional studies found a moderating effect of Val66Met on the cognitive response to exercise, which was also inconsistent in its direction. Two studies showed a superior cognitive response in Val carriers and three studies showed a better response in Met carriers. These results do not support a general and consistent effect of Val66Met in moderating the cognitive response to PA or exercise. Both Val and Met carriers can improve specific aspects of cognition by increasing PA and engaging in exercise. Causes for discrepancies among studies, effect moderators, and future directions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernat de Las Heras
- Memory and Motor Rehabilitation Laboratory (MEMORY-LAB), Feil and Oberfeld Research Centre, Jewish Rehabilitation Hospital, Montreal Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation (CRIR), Laval, Quebec, Canada.,School of Physical and Occupational Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Lynden Rodrigues
- Memory and Motor Rehabilitation Laboratory (MEMORY-LAB), Feil and Oberfeld Research Centre, Jewish Rehabilitation Hospital, Montreal Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation (CRIR), Laval, Quebec, Canada.,School of Physical and Occupational Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jacopo Cristini
- Memory and Motor Rehabilitation Laboratory (MEMORY-LAB), Feil and Oberfeld Research Centre, Jewish Rehabilitation Hospital, Montreal Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation (CRIR), Laval, Quebec, Canada.,School of Physical and Occupational Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Maxana Weiss
- Memory and Motor Rehabilitation Laboratory (MEMORY-LAB), Feil and Oberfeld Research Centre, Jewish Rehabilitation Hospital, Montreal Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation (CRIR), Laval, Quebec, Canada.,School of Physical and Occupational Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Anna Prats-Puig
- University School of Health and Sport (EUSES), University of Girona, Girona, Catalunya, Spain
| | - Marc Roig
- Memory and Motor Rehabilitation Laboratory (MEMORY-LAB), Feil and Oberfeld Research Centre, Jewish Rehabilitation Hospital, Montreal Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation (CRIR), Laval, Quebec, Canada.,School of Physical and Occupational Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Wanner P, Cheng FH, Steib S. Effects of acute cardiovascular exercise on motor memory encoding and consolidation: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 116:365-381. [PMID: 32565171 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Emerging evidence indicates that acute bouts of cardiovascular exercise promote motor memory formation. In this preregistered meta-analysis (CRD42018106288) we synthesize data from 22 studies published until February 2020, including a total of 862 participants. We calculated standardized mean differences (SMDs) with 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) to assess exercise effects on motor memory encoding and consolidation, respectively. The pooled data indicate that exercise mainly benefits the consolidation of memories, with exercise prior to motor practice improving early non-sleep consolidation (SMD, 0.58; 95 % CI, 0.30-0.86; p < 0.001), and post-practice exercise facilitating sleep-dependent consolidation (SMD, 0.62; 95 % CI, 0.34-0.90; p < 0.001). Strongest effects exist for high exercise intensities, and motor task nature appears to be another relevant modulator. We demonstrate that acute cardiovascular exercise particularly promotes the consolidation of acquired motor memories, and exercise timing, and intensity as well as motor task nature seem to critically modulate this relationship. These findings are discussed within currently proposed models of motor memory formation and considering molecular and systemic mechanisms of neural plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Wanner
- Department of Sport Science and Sport, Division of Exercise and Health, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Gebbertstraße 123b, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Fei-Hsin Cheng
- Department of Sport Science and Sport, Division of Exercise and Health, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Gebbertstraße 123b, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Simon Steib
- Department of Sport Science and Sport, Division of Exercise and Health, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Gebbertstraße 123b, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; Department of Sport and Health Sciences, Chair of Human Movement Science, Technical University of Munich, Georg-Brauchle-Ring 60/ 62, 80992 Munich, Germany.
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Beck MM, Grandjean MU, Hartmand S, Spedden ME, Christiansen L, Roig M, Lundbye-Jensen J. Acute Exercise Protects Newly Formed Motor Memories Against rTMS-induced Interference Targeting Primary Motor Cortex. Neuroscience 2020; 436:110-121. [PMID: 32311411 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2019] [Revised: 04/04/2020] [Accepted: 04/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Acute cardiovascular exercise can promote motor memory consolidation following motor practice, and thus long-term retention, but the underlying mechanisms remain sparsely elucidated. Here we test the hypothesis that the positive behavioral effects of acute exercise involve the primary motor cortex and the corticospinal pathway by interfering with motor memory consolidation using non-invasive, low frequency, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS). Forty-eight able-bodied, young adult male participants (mean age = 24.8 y/o) practiced a visuomotor accuracy task demanding precise and fast pinch force control. Following motor practice, participants either rested or exercised (20 min total: 3 × 3 min at 90% VO2peak) before receiving either sham rTMS or supra-threshold rTMS (115% RMT, 1 Hz) targeting the hand area of the contralateral primary motor cortex for 20 min. Retention was evaluated 24 h following motor practice, and motor memory consolidation was operationalized as overnight changes in motor performance. Low-frequency rTMS resulted in off-line decrements in motor performance compared to sham rTMS, but these were counteracted by a preceding bout of intense exercise. These findings demonstrate that a single session of exercise promotes early motor memory stabilization and protects the primary motor cortex and the corticospinal system against interference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikkel Malling Beck
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Marcus Udsen Grandjean
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sander Hartmand
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Lasse Christiansen
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Centre for Functional and Diagnostic Imaging and Research, Copenhagen University Hospital Hvidovre, 2650 Hvidovre, Denmark
| | - Marc Roig
- Memory and Motor Rehabilitation Laboratory (MEMORY-LAB), Feil and Oberfield Research Centre, Jewish Rehabilitation Hospital, Montreal Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Rehabilitation (CRIR), Laval, Canada; School of Physical and Occupational Therapy, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Jesper Lundbye-Jensen
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; Department of Neuroscience, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Effects of Exercise on Cognitive Performance in Children and Adolescents with ADHD: Potential Mechanisms and Evidence-based Recommendations. J Clin Med 2019; 8:jcm8060841. [PMID: 31212854 PMCID: PMC6617109 DOI: 10.3390/jcm8060841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a complex symptomatology, and core symptoms as well as functional impairment often persist into adulthood. Recent investigations estimate the worldwide prevalence of ADHD in children and adolescents to be ~7%, which is a substantial increase compared to a decade ago. Conventional treatment most often includes pharmacotherapy with central nervous stimulants, but the number of non-responders and adverse effects call for treatment alternatives. Exercise has been suggested as a safe and low-cost adjunctive therapy for ADHD and is reported to be accompanied by positive effects on several aspects of cognitive functions in the general child population. Here we review existing evidence that exercise affects cognitive functions in children with and without ADHD and present likely neurophysiological mechanisms of action. We find well-described associations between physical activity and ADHD, as well as causal evidence in the form of small to moderate beneficial effects following acute aerobic exercise on executive functions in children with ADHD. Despite large heterogeneity, meta-analyses find small positive effects of exercise in population-based control (PBC) children, and our extracted effect sizes from long-term interventions suggest consistent positive effects in children and adolescents with ADHD. Paucity of studies probing the effect of different exercise parameters impedes finite conclusions in this regard. Large-scale clinical trials with appropriately timed exercise are needed. In summary, the existing preliminary evidence suggests that exercise can improve cognitive performance intimately linked to ADHD presentations in children with and without an ADHD diagnosis. Based on the findings from both PBC and ADHD children, we cautiously provide recommendations for parameters of exercise.
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