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Tamo AK, Djouonkep LDW, Selabi NBS. 3D Printing of Polysaccharide-Based Hydrogel Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering Applications: A Review. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 270:132123. [PMID: 38761909 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.132123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 05/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024]
Abstract
In tissue engineering, 3D printing represents a versatile technology employing inks to construct three-dimensional living structures, mimicking natural biological systems. This technology efficiently translates digital blueprints into highly reproducible 3D objects. Recent advances have expanded 3D printing applications, allowing for the fabrication of diverse anatomical components, including engineered functional tissues and organs. The development of printable inks, which incorporate macromolecules, enzymes, cells, and growth factors, is advancing with the aim of restoring damaged tissues and organs. Polysaccharides, recognized for their intrinsic resemblance to components of the extracellular matrix have garnered significant attention in the field of tissue engineering. This review explores diverse 3D printing techniques, outlining distinctive features that should characterize scaffolds used as ideal matrices in tissue engineering. A detailed investigation into the properties and roles of polysaccharides in tissue engineering is highlighted. The review also culminates in a profound exploration of 3D polysaccharide-based hydrogel applications, focusing on recent breakthroughs in regenerating different tissues such as skin, bone, cartilage, heart, nerve, vasculature, and skeletal muscle. It further addresses challenges and prospective directions in 3D printing hydrogels based on polysaccharides, paving the way for innovative research to fabricate functional tissues, enhancing patient care, and improving quality of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnaud Kamdem Tamo
- Institute of Microsystems Engineering IMTEK, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany; Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies FIT, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany; Freiburg Materials Research Center FMF, University of Freiburg, 79104 Freiburg, Germany; Ingénierie des Matériaux Polymères (IMP), Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, INSA de Lyon, Université Jean Monnet, CNRS, UMR 5223, 69622 Villeurbanne CEDEX, France.
| | - Lesly Dasilva Wandji Djouonkep
- College of Petroleum Engineering, Yangtze University, Wuhan 430100, China; Key Laboratory of Drilling and Production Engineering for Oil and Gas, Wuhan 430100, China
| | - Naomie Beolle Songwe Selabi
- Institute of Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430081, China
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Sivakumar PM, Yetisgin AA, Demir E, Sahin SB, Cetinel S. Polysaccharide-bioceramic composites for bone tissue engineering: A review. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 250:126237. [PMID: 37567538 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
Limitations associated with conventional bone substitutes such as autografts, increasing demand for bone grafts, and growing elderly population worldwide necessitate development of unique materials as bone graft substitutes. Bone tissue engineering (BTE) would ensure therapy advancement, efficiency, and cost-effective treatment modalities of bone defects. One way of engineering bone tissue scaffolds by mimicking natural bone tissue composed of organic and inorganic phases is to utilize polysaccharide-bioceramic hybrid composites. Polysaccharides are abundant in nature, and present in human body. Biominerals, like hydroxyapatite are present in natural bone and some of them possess osteoconductive and osteoinductive properties. Ion doped bioceramics could substitute protein-based biosignal molecules to achieve osteogenesis, vasculogenesis, angiogenesis, and stress shielding. This review is a systemic summary on properties, advantages, and limitations of polysaccharide-bioceramic/ion doped bioceramic composites along with their recent advancements in BTE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ponnurengam Malliappan Sivakumar
- Nanotechnology Research and Application Center (SUNUM), Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey; Institute of Research and Development, Duy Tan University, Da Nang 550000, Viet Nam; School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Duy Tan University, Da Nang 550000, Viet Nam.
| | - Abuzer Alp Yetisgin
- Nanotechnology Research and Application Center (SUNUM), Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey; Sabanci University, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Materials Science and Nano-Engineering Program, Istanbul 34956, Turkey
| | - Ebru Demir
- Nanotechnology Research and Application Center (SUNUM), Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey; Sabanci University, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Molecular Biology, Genetics and Bioengineering Program, Istanbul 34956, Turkey
| | - Sevilay Burcu Sahin
- Nanotechnology Research and Application Center (SUNUM), Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey; Sabanci University, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Molecular Biology, Genetics and Bioengineering Program, Istanbul 34956, Turkey
| | - Sibel Cetinel
- Nanotechnology Research and Application Center (SUNUM), Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey; Sabanci University, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Molecular Biology, Genetics and Bioengineering Program, Istanbul 34956, Turkey.
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Pushparaj K, Balasubramanian B, Pappuswamy M, Anand Arumugam V, Durairaj K, Liu WC, Meyyazhagan A, Park S. Out of Box Thinking to Tangible Science: A Benchmark History of 3D Bio-Printing in Regenerative Medicine and Tissues Engineering. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:life13040954. [PMID: 37109483 PMCID: PMC10145662 DOI: 10.3390/life13040954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Advancements and developments in the 3D bioprinting have been promising and have met the needs of organ transplantation. Current improvements in tissue engineering constructs have enhanced their applications in regenerative medicines and other medical fields. The synergistic effects of 3D bioprinting have brought technologies such as tissue engineering, microfluidics, integrated tissue organ printing, in vivo bioprinted tissue implants, artificial intelligence and machine learning approaches together. These have greatly impacted interventions in medical fields, such as medical implants, multi-organ-on-chip models, prosthetics, drug testing tissue constructs and much more. This technological leap has offered promising personalized solutions for patients with chronic diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders, and who have been in severe accidents. This review discussed the various standing printing methods, such as inkjet, extrusion, laser-assisted, digital light processing, and stereolithographic 3D bioprinter models, adopted for tissue constructs. Additionally, the properties of natural, synthetic, cell-laden, dECM-based, short peptides, nanocomposite and bioactive bioinks are briefly discussed. Sequels of several tissue-laden constructs such as skin, bone and cartilage, liver, kidney, smooth muscles, cardiac and neural tissues are briefly analyzed. Challenges, future perspectives and the impact of microfluidics in resolving the limitations in the field, along with 3D bioprinting, are discussed. Certainly, a technology gap still exists in the scaling up, industrialization and commercialization of this technology for the benefit of stakeholders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karthika Pushparaj
- Department of Zoology, School of Biosciences, Avinashilingam Institute for Home Science and Higher Education for Women, Coimbatore 641 043, Tamil Nadu, India
| | | | - Manikantan Pappuswamy
- Department of Life Science, CHRIST (Deemed to be University), Bengaluru 560 076, Karnataka, India
| | - Vijaya Anand Arumugam
- Department of Human Genetics and Molecular Biology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore 641 046, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Kaliannan Durairaj
- Department of Infection Biology, School of Medicine, Wonkwang University, lksan 54538, Republic of Korea
| | - Wen-Chao Liu
- Department of Animal Science, College of Coastal Agricultural Sciences, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China
| | - Arun Meyyazhagan
- Department of Life Science, CHRIST (Deemed to be University), Bengaluru 560 076, Karnataka, India
| | - Sungkwon Park
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Sejong University, Seoul 05006, Republic of Korea
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Ansari MAA, Jain PK, Nanda HS. Preparation of 3D printed calcium sulfate filled PLA scaffolds with improved mechanical and degradation properties. JOURNAL OF BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE. POLYMER EDITION 2023:1-22. [PMID: 36628582 DOI: 10.1080/09205063.2023.2167374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Scaffold is one of the key components for tissue engineering application. Three-dimensional (3D) printing has given a new avenue to the scaffolds design to closely mimic the real tissue. However, material selection has always been a challenge in adopting 3D printing for scaffolds fabrication, especially for hard tissue. The fused filament fabrication technique is one of the economical 3D printing technology available today, which can efficiently fabricate scaffolds with its key features. In the present study, a hybrid polymer-ceramic scaffold has been prepared by combining the benefit of synthetic biodegradable poly (lactic acid) (PLA) and osteoconductive calcium sulphate (CaS), to harness the advantage of both materials. Composite PLA filament with maximum ceramic loading of 40 wt% was investigated for its printability and subsequently scaffolds were 3D printed. The composite filament was extruded at a temperature of 160 °C at a constant speed with an average diameter of 1.66 ± 0.34 mm. PLA-CaS scaffold with ceramic content of 10%, 20%, and 40% was 3D printed with square pore geometry. The developed scaffolds were characterized for their thermal stability, mechanical, morphological, and geometrical accuracy. The mechanical strength was improved by 29% at 20 wt% of CaS. The porosity was found to be 50-60% with an average pore size of 550 µm with well-interconnected pores. The effect of CaS particles on the degradation behaviour of scaffolds was also assessed over an incubation period of 28 days. The CaS particles acted as porogen and improved the surface chemistry for future cellular activity, while accelerating the degradation rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Aftab Alam Ansari
- Biomedical Engineering and Technology Lab, Mechanical Engineering Discipline, PDPM Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design & Manufacturing Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India.,Fused Filament Fabrication Laboratory, Mechanical Engineering Discipline, PDPM Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design & Manufacturing Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Prashant Kumar Jain
- Fused Filament Fabrication Laboratory, Mechanical Engineering Discipline, PDPM Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design & Manufacturing Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Himansu Sekhar Nanda
- Biomedical Engineering and Technology Lab, Mechanical Engineering Discipline, PDPM Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design & Manufacturing Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India.,Terasaki Institute for Biomedical Innovation (TIBI), Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Li XD, Yan DW, Ren HH, Zhang QY, Yan YG. Fabricating biodegradable calcium phosphate/calcium sulfate cement reinforced with cellulose: in vitro and in vivo studies. J Mater Chem B 2023; 11:303-315. [PMID: 36440610 DOI: 10.1039/d2tb02191a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Osteoporosis is a growing public health concern worldwide. To avoid extra surgeries, developing biodegradable bone cement is critical for the treatment of osteoporosis. Herein, we designed calcium phosphate/calcium sulfate cement reinforced with sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC/OPC). It presents an appropriate physicochemical performance for clinical handling. Meanwhile, CMC/OPC bone cement promotes osteogenic differentiation in vitro. Results of the immune response in vitro and in vivo confirmed that increasing the cellulose content triggered macrophage switching into the M2 phenotype and CMC/OPC exhibited significant anti-inflammation. Furthermore, in vitro and in vivo degradation demonstrated that cellulose tailors the degradation rate of composite bone cement, which achieved a linear degradation process and could degrade by more than 90% for 12 weeks. In summary, the composite bone cement CMC/OPC is a promising candidate for bone repair applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Dan Li
- College of Physics, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610064, China.
| | - Da-Wei Yan
- College of Physics, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610064, China.
| | - Hao-Hao Ren
- College of Physics, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610064, China.
| | - Qi-Yi Zhang
- School of Chemical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610065, China.
| | - Yong-Gang Yan
- College of Physics, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610064, China.
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Iravani S, Varma RS. Cellulose-Based Composites as Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering: Recent Advances. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27248830. [PMID: 36557963 PMCID: PMC9784432 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27248830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Today, numerous studies have focused on the design of novel scaffolds for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications; however, several challenges still exist in terms of biocompatibility/cytocompatibility, degradability, cell attachment/proliferation, nutrient diffusion, large-scale production, and clinical translation studies. Greener and safer technologies can help to produce scaffolds with the benefits of cost-effectiveness, high biocompatibility, and biorenewability/sustainability, reducing their toxicity and possible side effects. However, some challenges persist regarding their degradability, purity, having enough porosity, and possible immunogenicity. In this context, naturally derived cellulose-based scaffolds with high biocompatibility, ease of production, availability, sustainability/renewability, and environmentally benign attributes can be applied for designing scaffolds. These cellulose-based scaffolds have shown unique mechanical properties, improved cell attachment/proliferation, multifunctionality, and enhanced biocompatibility/cytocompatibility, which make them promising candidates for tissue engineering applications. Herein, the salient developments pertaining to cellulose-based scaffolds for neural, bone, cardiovascular, and skin tissue engineering are deliberated, focusing on the challenges and opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siavash Iravani
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan 81746-73461, Iran
- Correspondence: (S.I.); (R.S.V.)
| | - Rajender S. Varma
- Regional Centre of Advanced Technologies and Materials, Czech Advanced Technology and Research Institute, Palacký University in Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
- Correspondence: (S.I.); (R.S.V.)
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Curti F, Serafim A, Olaret E, Dinescu S, Samoila I, Vasile BS, Iovu H, Lungu A, Stancu IC, Marinescu R. Development of Biocomposite Alginate-Cuttlebone-Gelatin 3D Printing Inks Designed for Scaffolds with Bone Regeneration Potential. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:670. [PMID: 36354993 PMCID: PMC9694341 DOI: 10.3390/md20110670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Fabrication of three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds using natural biomaterials introduces valuable opportunities in bone tissue reconstruction and regeneration. The current study aimed at the development of paste-like 3D printing inks with an extracellular matrix-inspired formulation based on marine materials: sodium alginate (SA), cuttlebone (CB), and fish gelatin (FG). Macroporous scaffolds with microporous biocomposite filaments were obtained by 3D printing combined with post-printing crosslinking. CB fragments were used for their potential to stimulate biomineralization. Alginate enhanced CB embedding within the polymer matrix as confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) and micro-computer tomography (micro-CT) and improved the deformation under controlled compression as revealed by micro-CT. SA addition resulted in a modulation of the bulk and surface mechanical behavior, and lead to more elongated cell morphology as imaged by confocal microscopy and ESEM after the adhesion of MC3T3-E1 preosteoblasts at 48 h. Formation of a new mineral phase was detected on the scaffold's surface after cell cultures. All the results were correlated with the scaffolds' compositions. Overall, the study reveals the potential of the marine materials-containing inks to deliver 3D scaffolds with potential for bone regeneration applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filis Curti
- Advanced Polymer Materials Group, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnologies, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 1-7 Gh. Polizu Street, 011061 Bucharest, Romania
- Zentiva S.A., 50 Theodor Pallady, 032266 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Andrada Serafim
- Advanced Polymer Materials Group, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnologies, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 1-7 Gh. Polizu Street, 011061 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Elena Olaret
- Advanced Polymer Materials Group, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnologies, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 1-7 Gh. Polizu Street, 011061 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Sorina Dinescu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Bucharest, 91-95 Splaiul Independentei, 050095 Bucharest, Romania
- Research Institute of the University of Bucharest, 050663 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Iuliana Samoila
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Bucharest, 91-95 Splaiul Independentei, 050095 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Bogdan Stefan Vasile
- National Research Center for Micro and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnologies, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
- National Research Center for Food Safety, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Horia Iovu
- Advanced Polymer Materials Group, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnologies, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 1-7 Gh. Polizu Street, 011061 Bucharest, Romania
- Academy of Romanian Scientists, 54 Splaiul Independentei, 050094 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Adriana Lungu
- Advanced Polymer Materials Group, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnologies, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 1-7 Gh. Polizu Street, 011061 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Izabela Cristina Stancu
- Advanced Polymer Materials Group, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnologies, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 1-7 Gh. Polizu Street, 011061 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Rodica Marinescu
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Carol Davila” Bucharest, Eroii Sanitari Street No. 8, District 5, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
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van der Heide D, Cidonio G, Stoddart M, D'Este M. 3D printing of inorganic-biopolymer composites for bone regeneration. Biofabrication 2022; 14. [PMID: 36007496 DOI: 10.1088/1758-5090/ac8cb2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
In most cases, bone injuries heal without complications, however, there is an increasing number of instances where bone healing needs major clinical intervention. Available treatment options have severe drawbacks, such as donor site morbidity and limited availability for autografting. Bone graft substitutes containing growth factors would be a viable alternative, however they have been associated with dose-related safety concerns and lack control over spatial architecture to anatomically match bone defect sites. 3D printing offers a solution to produce patient specific bone graft substitutes that are customized to the patient bone defect with temporal control over the incorporated therapeutics to maximize their efficacy. Inspired by the natural constitution of bone tissue, composites made of inorganic phases, such as nanosilicate particles, calcium phosphate, and bioactive glasses, combined with biopolymer matrices have been investigated as building blocks for the biofabrication of bone constructs. Besides capturing elements of the bone physiological structure, these inorganic/organic composites can be designed for specific cohesivity, rheological and mechanical properties, while both inorganic and organic constituents contribute to the composite bioactivity. This review provides an overview of 3D printed composite biomaterial-inks for bone tissue engineering. Furthermore, key aspects in biomaterial-ink design, 3D printing techniques, and the building blocks for composite biomaterial-inks are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daphne van der Heide
- AO Research Institute Davos, Clavadelerstrasse, 8, Davos Platz, Davos, Graubünden, 7270, SWITZERLAND
| | - Gianluca Cidonio
- Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia Center for Life Nano Science, 3D Microfluidic Biofabrication Laboratory, Roma, Lazio, 00161, ITALY
| | - Martin Stoddart
- AO Research Institute Davos, Clavadelerstrasse 8, 7270 Davos, Davos, Graubünden, 7270, SWITZERLAND
| | - Matteo D'Este
- AO Research Institute Davos, Clavadelerstrasse 8, Davos, Graubünden, 7270, SWITZERLAND
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Varaprasad K, Karthikeyan C, Yallapu MM, Sadiku R. The significance of biomacromolecule alginate for the 3D printing of hydrogels for biomedical applications. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 212:561-578. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.05.157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Osteoblast-like Cell Differentiation on 3D-Printed Scaffolds Using Various Concentrations of Tetra-Polymers. Biomimetics (Basel) 2022; 7:biomimetics7020070. [PMID: 35735586 PMCID: PMC9221135 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics7020070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
New bone formation starts from the initial reaction between a scaffold surface and the extracellular matrix. This research aimed to evaluate the effects of various amounts of calcium, phosphate, sodium, sulfur, and chloride ions on osteoblast-like cell differentiation using tetra-polymers of amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP), calcium sulfate hemihydrate (CSH), alginic acid, and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose. Moreover, 3D-printed scaffolds were fabricated to determine the ion distribution and cell differentiation. Various proportions of ACP/CSH were prepared in ratios of 0%, 13%, 15%, 18%, 20%, and 23%. SEM was used to observe the morphology, cell spreading, and ion complements. The scaffolds were also examined for calcium ion release. The mouse osteoblast-like cell line MC3T3-E1 was cultured to monitor the osteogenic differentiation, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, total protein synthesis, osteocalcin expression (OCN), and calcium deposition. All 3D-printed scaffolds exhibited staggered filaments, except for the 0% group. The amounts of calcium, phosphate, sodium, and sulfur ions increased as the amounts of ACP/CSH increased. The 18%ACP/CSH group significantly exhibited the most ALP on days 7, 14, and 21, and the most OCN on days 14 and 21. Moreover, calcium deposition and mineralization showed the highest peak after 7 days. In conclusion, the 18%ACP/CSH group is capable of promoting osteoblast-like cell differentiation on 3D-printed scaffolds.
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