Halophilic bacteria as a source of novel hydrolytic enzymes

Comparative genomic analysis of two putative novel Idiomarina species from hypersaline miocene deposits

BACKGROUND

Hypersaline habitats, as extreme environments, are a great source of well-adapted organisms with unique properties as they have evolved various strategies to cope with these extreme conditions. Bioinformatics and genomic mining may shed light on evolutionary relationships among them. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the biodiversity and especially the strategies evolved within the Idiomarina genus, with the primary focus on the taxonomy and genomic adaptations of two novel strains affiliated with Idiomarina genus isolated from unique environment - brines of two Early Miocene salt deposits.

RESULTS

Both analyzed species belonged to the Idiomarina loihiensis cluster with similarity levels of 16S rRNA gene sequences as high as 99.5% and showed a significant genome size reduction, known characteristic of Idiomarina genomes, though within the genome of Sol25 strain the lowest extent of the carbohydrate utilization genes reduction was observed t among the Idiomarina species. Moreover, the comparative genome analyses indicated that despite both strains being isolated from geographically and geologically similar environments (brines from at least 12 Ma), the species showed higher relatedness to other Idiomarina species than to each other.

CONCLUSION

The present findings highlighted the importance of genomic data in resolving taxonomic uncertainties and understanding of adaptation strategies of extremophiles. Geographic isolation likely contributed to population divergence of the Idiomarina genus, and the recent study offered insights into biogeographic patterns and allopatric speciation of this bacterial group.

Development of a fluorescence-based excipient screening for improved stability and shelf-life of recombinant chitin deacetylase

Chitin deacetylase (CDA) modifies chitin into chitosan by removing acetyl groups, but its inherent instability poses a challenge for successful crystallisation. Despite limited successes in crystallizing CDAs, prior attempts with recombinant chitin deacetylase (BaCDA) failed due to poor stability. To address this, we propose an enzyme buffer formulation as a cost-effective strategy to enhance stability, prolong shelf life, and increase the likelihood of crystallisation. Utilizing the high-throughput screening technique FTSA, we developed a screening method correlating BaCDA stability with its activity. The optimised formulation comprises 50 mM Tris-HCl buffer pH 7, 1 M NaCl, 20 % glycerol, and 1 mM Mg2+ as excipients. This formulation significantly improves BaCDA's thermostability (140.47 % increase) and enzyme activity (2.9-fold enhancement). BaCDA remains stable in the formulated buffer at -20 °C and -80 °C for 30 days and at 4 °C for 15 days. The current study has designed a high-throughput screening method approach to assess the stability of CDA enzyme formulations. The results of this study could contribute to the exploration of formulation elements that enhance the structural stability of CDA, thereby facilitating investigations into the enzyme's structure-function relationships.

NaCl Modifies Biochemical Traits in Bacterial Endophytes Isolated from Halophytes: Towards Salinity Stress Mitigation Using Consortia

Bacterial endophytes (120) were isolated from six halophytes (Distichlis spicata, Cynodon dactylon, Eragrostis obtusiflora, Suaeda torreyana, Kochia scoparia, and Baccharis salicifolia). These halophiles were molecularly identified and characterized with or without NaCl conditions. Characterization was based on tests such as indole acetic acid (IAA), exopolysaccharides (EPS), and siderophores (SID) production; solubilization of phosphate (P), potassium (K), zinc (Zn), and manganese (Mn); mineralization of phytate; enzymatic activity (acid and alkaline phosphatase, phytases, xylanases, and chitinases) and the mineralization/solubilization mechanisms involved (organic acids and sugars). Moreover, compatibility among bacteria was assessed. Eleven halophiles were characterized as highly tolerant to NaCl (2.5 M). The bacteria isolated were all different from each other. Two belonged to Bacillus velezensis and one to B. pumilus while the rest of bacteria were identified up to the genus level as belonging to Bacillus, Halobacillus, Halomonas, Pseudomonas, Nesterenkonia, and three strains of Oceanobacillus. The biochemical responses of nutrient solubilization and enzymatic activity were different between bacteria and were influenced by the presence of NaCl. Organic acids were involved in P mineralization and nutrient solubilization. Tartaric acid was common in the solubilization of P, Zn, and K. Maleic and vanillic acid were only detected in Zn and K solubilization, respectively. Furthermore, sugars appeared to be involved in the solubilization of nutrients; fructose was detected in the solubilization tests. Therefore, these biochemical bacterial characteristics should be corroborated in vivo and tested as a consortium to mitigate saline stress in glycophytes under a global climate change scheme that threatens to exacerbate soil salinity.

Purification, structural characterization, and neuroprotective effect of 3,6-diisobutyl-2,5-piperazinedione from Halomonas pacifica CARE-V15 against okadaic acid-induced neurotoxicity in zebrafish model

Halomonas pacifica CARE-V15 was isolated from the southeastern coast of India to determine its genome sequence. Secondary metabolite gene clusters were identified using an anti-SMASH server. The concentrated crude ethyl acetate extract was evaluated by GC-MS. The bioactive compound from the crude ethyl acetate extract was fractionated by gel column chromatography. HPLC was used to purify the 3,6-diisobutyl-2,5-piperazinedione (DIP), and the structure was determined using FTIR and NMR spectroscopy. Purified DIP was used in an in silico molecular docking analysis. Purified DIP exhibits a stronger affinity for antioxidant genes like glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), and glutathione reductase (GSR). Using in silco molecular docking analysis, the protein-ligand binding affinities of GSR (-4.70 kcal/mol), GST (-5.27 kcal/mol), and GPx (-5.37 kcal/mol) were measured. The expression of antioxidant genes were investigated by qRT-PCR. The in vivo reactive oxygen species production, lipid peroxidation, and cell death levels were significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased in OA-induced group, but all these levels were significantly (p ≤ 0.05) decreased in the purified DIP pretreated group. Purified DIP from halophilic bacteria could thus be a useful treatment for neurological disorders associated with oxidative stress.

Halophilic lactic acid bacteria - Play a vital role in the fermented food industry

Halophilic lactic acid bacteria have been widely found in various high-salt fermented foods. The distribution of these species in salt-fermented foods contributes significantly to the development of the product's flavor. Besides, these bacteria also have the ability to biosynthesize bioactive components which potentially apply to different areas. In this review, insights into the metabolic properties, salt stress responses, and potential applications of these bacteria have been have been elucidated. The purpose of this review highlights the important role of halophilic lactic acid bacteria in improving the quality and safety of salt-fermented products and explores the potential application of these bacteria.

Heterologous expression of bacterial dehydrin gene in Arabidopsis thaliana promotes abiotic stress tolerance

Salinity, low temperature, and drought are major environmental factors in agriculture leading to reduced crop yield. Dehydrins (DHNs) are induced transcriptionally during cellular dehydration and accumulate in different tissues during abiotic stresses. Here we isolated and characterized a bacterial gene BG757 in Arabidopsis, encoding a putative dehydrin type protein. ABA induces the expression of various dehydrins in plants, therefore, to elucidate the potential role, ABA sensitivity was examined in Arabidopsis transgenic lines expressing BG757. Interestingly, BG757-expressing plants showed hypersensitivity towards NaCl and ABA during seed germination. In addition to germination, BG757-expressing plants also showed root growth retardation in the presence of ABA and NaCl when compared with wild type (WT), suggesting that BG757 positively regulate salt stress and ABA response. Furthermore, BG757-expressing plants showed significant drought tolerance compared with WT. Consistent with drought tolerance, expression levels of stress inducible genes (DREB2A, RD22, RD26, LEA7 and SOS1) were strongly upregulated in transgenic plants compared with WT. All together these results suggest that heterologous expression of bacterial gene, BG757 in plants promotes resistance to environmental stresses.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-023-01358-w.

Halotolerant bacterial biofilms for desalination and water treatment: a pilot study

Salinity has a significant impact on the water quality and crop yield. Physical desalination techniques were once thought to be expensive and time-consuming. Among biological techniques, halotolerant bacteria were thought to be the fastest and most effective way to reduce the salt content in brackish saltwater water. In the current study, halotolerant bacterial biofilms were used to desalinate saline water on abiotic substrates (such as sand, pebbles, glass beads, and plastic beads), and studied subsequently for the effects on Zea mays germination. Briefly, salt samples (SLT7 and SLT8) from the Khewra site in Punjab, Pakistan, as well as seawater and sea sand samples (USW1, USW3, USW6, DSW1, DSW4, SS1, and SS3) from Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan's Arabian Sea, were collected. Halotolerant bacteria were isolated and characterized. Crystal violet ring assays and capsule staining were used to estimate extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) and biofilm development, respectively. All halotolerant bacterial strains were spore formers and produced EPS and formed biofilms well. 16S rRNA gene sequencing of the best halotolerant bacteria, USW6, showed the closest (100%) similarity to Bacillus aerius strain G-07 (a novel species) (accession number ON202984). A pilot-scale experiment for desalinating the artificial water (supplemented with 1 M NaCl) using biofilm adhered abiotic beads showed declined level of NaCl from 1 M to 0.00003 M after 15 days in treated water. Also, Zea mays germination was observed in the plants using treated water compared to no growth in the non-treated saline water. Estimations of chlorophyll, total soluble sugar, and protein revealed that plants cultivated using elute collected from a desalinated pilot scale setup contained less chlorophyll (i.e., 5.994 and 116.76). Likewise, plants grown with elute had a total soluble protein and sugar content of 1.45 mg/ml and 1.3 mg/ml, respectively. Overall, in treated water plants, a minor drop in chlorophyll content, a slight increase in total soluble sugar content, and a slight increase in protein content were noted. The study concluded that biofilm-treated desalt water has the potential to significantly reduce the effects of droughts, soil salinization, and economic and environmental issues associated with agricultural drainage. The results specified the application of halotolerant bacteria biofilms (Bacillus aerius, a novel species, USW6) for water desalination to overcome the problem of water scarcity caused by global warming and the increased salinity.

Optimization, partial purification, and characterization of a novel high molecular weight alkaline protease produced by Halobacillus sp. HAL1 using fish wastes as a substrate

BACKGROUND

Hydrolytic enzymes from halophilic microorganisms have a wide range of industrial applications. Herein, we report the isolation of Halobacillus sp. HAL1, a moderately halophilic bacterium that produces a novel high molecular weight extracellular alkaline protease when grown in fish processing wastes as a substrate.

RESULTS

Results showed that the isolated strain belonged to the genus Halobacillus, and it was designated as Halobacillus sp. HAL1 with the GenBank accession number OK001470. The strain secreted an extracellular alkaline protease, and the highest yield was obtained when it was grown in a medium with fish wastes substrate as the sole nutritional source (10 g/L) and incubated at 25 °C under shaking conditions. The enzyme was partially purified by Sephadex G-100 column chromatography. Zymographic analysis showed two casein degrading bands of about 190 and 250 KDa. The optimum enzyme activity was at a temperature of 50 °C at pH 8. The proteolytic activity was enhanced in the presence of metal ions (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, and Mn²⁺), surfactants (Tween 80, SDS, and Triton-X100), H₂O₂, and EDTA.

CONCLUSION

Our study indicates that Haobacillus sp. HAL1 is a moderately halophilic strain and secrets a novel high molecular wight alkaline protease that is suitable for detergent formulation.

Marine enzymes: Classification and application in various industries

Oceans are regarded as a plentiful and sustainable source of biological compounds. Enzymes are a group of marine biomaterials that have recently drawn more attention because they are produced in harsh environmental conditions such as high salinity, extensive pH, a wide temperature range, and high pressure. Hence, marine-derived enzymes are capable of exhibiting remarkable properties due to their unique composition. In this review, we overviewed and discussed characteristics of marine enzymes as well as the sources of marine enzymes, ranging from primitive organisms to vertebrates, and presented the importance, advantages, and challenges of using marine enzymes with a summary of their applications in a variety of industries. Current biotechnological advancements need the study of novel marine enzymes that could be applied in a variety of ways. Resources of marine enzyme can benefit greatly for biotechnological applications duo to their biocompatible, ecofriendly and high effectiveness. It is beneficial to use the unique characteristics offered by marine enzymes to either develop new processes and products or improve existing ones. As a result, marine-derived enzymes have promising potential and are an excellent candidate for a variety of biotechnology applications and a future rise in the use of marine enzymes is to be anticipated.

A novel promising laccase from the psychrotolerant and halotolerant Antarctic marine Halomonas sp. M68 strain

Microbial communities inhabiting the Antarctic Ocean show psychrophilic and halophilic adaptations conferring interesting properties to the enzymes they produce, which could be exploited in biotechnology and bioremediation processes. Use of cold- and salt-tolerant enzymes allows to limit costs, reduce contaminations, and minimize pretreatment steps. Here, we report on the screening of 186 morphologically diverse microorganisms isolated from marine biofilms and water samples collected in Terra Nova Bay (Ross Sea, Antarctica) for the identification of new laccase activities. After primary screening, 13.4 and 10.8% of the isolates were identified for the ability to oxidize 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) and the dye azure B, respectively. Amongst them, the marine Halomonas sp. strain M68 showed the highest activity. Production of its laccase-like activity increased six-fold when copper was added to culture medium. Enzymatic activity-guided separation coupled with mass spectrometry identified this intracellular laccase-like protein (named Ant laccase) as belonging to the copper resistance system multicopper oxidase family. Ant laccase oxidized ABTS and 2,6-dimethoxy phenol, working better at acidic pHs The enzyme showed a good thermostability, with optimal temperature in the 40-50°C range and maintaining more than 40% of its maximal activity even at 10°C. Furthermore, Ant laccase was salt- and organic solvent-tolerant, paving the way for its use in harsh conditions. To our knowledge, this is the first report concerning the characterization of a thermo- and halo-tolerant laccase isolated from a marine Antarctic bacterium.

Unraveling the enzymatic and antibacterial potential of rare halophilic actinomycetes from Algerian hypersaline wetland ecosystems

The study aimed to isolate rare halophilic actinomycetes from hypersaline soils of Algerian inland Wetland Ecosystems "Sebkhas-Chotts" located in arid and hot hyperarid lands with international importance under the Ramsar Convention and to explore their enzyme-producing and antibacterial abilities. The halophilic actinomycetes were selectively isolated using agar-rich media supplemented with 5, 10, and 15% (W/V) of total salts. Thirty-one isolates were obtained and 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis revealed the presence of members affiliated to rare halophilic actinobacterial genera (Actinopolyspora and Nocardiopsis) accounting for 74.19% (23 isolates out of 31) and 25.8% (8 isolates), respectively. Both phylotypes are alkalitolerant and halophilic thermotolerant actinomycetes displaying significant hydrolytic activities relative to (amylase, asparaginase, cellulase, esterase, glutaminase, inulinase, protease, pectinase, xylanase), and over 96% of tested isolates exhibited all common enzymes, mainly active at 10% of growing salt. In addition, high antibacterial activity was observed against Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Micrococcus luteus, and Staphylococcus aureus. The findings showed that saline wetlands ecosystems represent a rich reservoir for the isolation of significant rare halophilic actinomycetes with potential adaptive features and valuable sources for novel bioactive metabolites and biocatalysts of biotechnological interest.

Sponge–Microbial Symbiosis and Marine Extremozymes: Current Issues and Prospects

Marine microorganisms have great potential for producing extremozymes. They enter useful relationships like many other organisms in the marine habitat. Sponge–microbial symbiosis enables both sponges and microorganisms to mutually benefit each other while performing their activities within the ecosystem. Sponges, because of their nature as marine cosmopolitan benthic epifaunas and filter feeders, serve as a host for many extremophilic marine microorganisms. Potential extremozymes from microbial symbionts are largely dependent on their successful relationship. Extremozymes have found relevance in food processing, bioremediation, detergent, and drug production. Species diversity approach, industrial-scale bioremediation, integrative bioremediation software, government and industrial support are considered. The high cost of sampling, limited research outcomes, low species growth in synthetic media, laborious nature of metagenomics projects, difficulty in the development of synthetic medium, limited number of available experts, and technological knowhow are current challenges. The unique properties of marine extremozymes underpin their application in industry and biotechnological processes. There is therefore an urgent need for the development of cost-effective methods with government and industry support.

Optimization of Lipopeptide Biosurfactant Production by Salibacterium sp. 4CTb in Batch Stirred-Tank Bioreactors

Halophilic microorganisms are potentially capable as platforms to produce low-cost biosurfactants. However, the robustness of bioprocesses is still a challenge and, therefore, it is essential to understand the effects of microbiological culture conditions through bioreactor engineering. Based on a design of experiments (DOE) and a response surface methodology (RSM) tailored and taken from the literature, the present work focuses on the evaluation of a composite central design (CCD) under batch cultures in stirred-tank bioreactors with the halophilic bacteria Salibacterium sp. 4CTb in order to determine the operative conditions that favor mass transfer and optimize the production of a lipopeptide. The results obtained showed profiles highlighting the most favorable culture conditions, which lead to an emulsification index (E24%) higher than 70%. Moreover, through the behavior of dissolved oxygen (DO), it was possible to experimentally evaluate the higher volumetric coefficient of mass transfer in the presence of lipopeptide (kLa = 31 1/h) as a key criterion for the synthesis of the biosurfactant on further cell expansion.

Metabolic Potential of Halophilic Filamentous Fungi—Current Perspective

Salty environments are widely known to be inhospitable to most microorganisms. For centuries salt has been used as a food preservative, while highly saline environments were considered uninhabited by organisms, and if habited, only by prokaryotic ones. Nowadays, we know that filamentous fungi are widespread in many saline habitats very often characterized also by other extremes, for example, very low or high temperature, lack of light, high pressure, or low water activity. However, fungi are still the least understood organisms among halophiles, even though they have been shown to counteract these unfavorable conditions by producing multiple secondary metabolites with interesting properties or unique biomolecules as one of their survival strategies. In this review, we focused on biomolecules obtained from halophilic filamentous fungi such as enzymes, pigments, biosurfactants, and osmoprotectants.

Characterization of Some Salt-Tolerant Bacterial Hydrolases with Potential Utility in Cultural Heritage Bio-Cleaning

Salt-tolerant enzymes produced by halophilic and halotolerant microorganisms have been proposed to be used in various applications that involve high saline conditions. Considering their biotechnological significance and the current need for more efficient producers of such catalysts, the present study aimed to evaluate the extracellular proteolytic, esterolytic, cellulolytic and xylanolytic activities of some halotolerant strains, and to characterize their functional parameters. A total of 21 bacterial and fungal strains belonging to the genera Bacillus, Virgibacillus, Salinivibrio, Salinicoccus, Psychrobacter, Nocardiopsis, Penicillium, Aspergillus, and Emericellopsis were assayed by quantitative methods. Among them, the members of the Bacillus genus exhibited the highest catalytic activities. The exoenzymes produced by three selected Bacillus strains were active over wide ranges of salinity, temperature and pH. Proteases were active at 20–80 °C, pH 6–10, and 0–1 M NaCl, while esterases showed good catalytic activities at 20–80 °C, pH 7.5–10, and 0–4 M NaCl. Cellulases and xylanases were active at 20–80 °C, pH 5–10, and 0–5 M NaCl. Due to such properties, these hydrolases could be used in a newly proposed application, namely to clean aged consolidants and organic deposits accumulated over time from the surfaces of salt-loaded wall paintings.

Structural and functional adaptation in extremophilic microbial α-amylases

Maintaining stable native conformation of a protein under a given ecological condition is the prerequisite for survival of organisms. Extremophilic bacteria and archaea have evolved to adapt under extreme conditions of temperature, pH, salt, and pressure. Molecular adaptations of proteins under these conditions are essential for their survival. These organisms have the capability to maintain stable, native conformations of proteins under extreme conditions. The enzymes produced by the extremophiles are also known as extremozyme, which are used in several industries. Stability and functionality of extremozymes under varying temperature, pH, and solvent conditions are the most desirable requirement of industry. α-Amylase is one of the most important enzymes used in food, pharmaceutical, textile, and detergent industries. This enzyme is produced by diverse microorganisms including various extremophiles. Therefore, understanding its stability is important from fundamental as well as an applied point of view. Each class of extremophiles has a distinctive set of dominant non-covalent interactions which are important for their stability. Static information obtained by comparative analysis of amino acid sequence and atomic resolution structure provides information on the prevalence of particular amino acids or a group of non-covalent interactions. Protein folding studies give the information about thermodynamic and kinetic stability in order to understand dynamic aspect of molecular adaptations. In this review, we have summarized information on amino acid sequence, structure, stability, and adaptability of α-amylases from different classes of extremophiles.

Halophilic bacteria of salt lakes and saline soils of the Peri-Caspian lowland (Republic of Daghestan) and their biotechnological potential

The article presents the results of studying the biodiversity and biotechnological potential of halophilic microorganisms from the thermal highly mineralized Berikey Lake, the salty Lake Tarumovskoye and saline soils of the Peri-Caspian Lowland (Republic of Daghestan). Denitrifying halophilic bacteria of the genus Halomonas and Virgibacillus were identified using microbiological methods and 16S rRNA gene analysis. A new species Halomonas sp. G2 (MW386470) with a similarity of the nucleotide sequences of the 16S rRNA genes is 95 %. Strain G2 is an extreme halophile capable of growing in the range of 5–25 % NaCl (optimum 25 %) and forming a carotenoid pigment. Mesophil, 30–37 °С (optimum 30 °С); neutrophil, pH 6–8 (optimum 7.2–7.4). Strain G2 chemolithotroph; reduces nitrate or nitrite as electron donors; catalase-, amylase-, protease- and β-galactosidase-positive; lipase-, oxidase- and urease-negative. Not able to hydrolyze inositol, indole; produces lysine, gelatin, ectoine; uses citrate and sodium malate as a source of carbon and energy; does not produce ornitin, H2S or acid from d-mannose, sucrose, glycerol, cellobiose, except for lactose and d-glucose. Susceptible to trimethoprim, ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin, kanamycin, vancomycin, rifampicin, cefuroxime, ampicillin, ceftazidime, fosfomycin, clarithromycin, cefepime, cefaclor. The G+C content in DNA is 67.3 %. A distinctive characteristic of the isolate was the production of industrially significant hydrolytic enzymes such as amylase, protease, β-galactosidase, and oxidoreductase (catalase) at a NaCl concentration of 25 % in the medium. Habitat: saline soils on the territory of the Tersko-Kumskaya lowland (Republic of Daghestan, Russia). The rest of the halophilic isolates of H. ventosae G1 (MW386469), H. elongata G3 (MW386471), V. salinarius B2 (MW386472), and V. salinarius B3 (MW386473) had a high degree of similarity (100 %) with the type strains of H. elongata DSM 2581Т and V. salarius DSM 18441Т ; the content of G+C in DNA was 65.8, 66.5, 42.8 and 37.3 %, respectively. The strains had a high biotechnological potential at NaCl concentrations of 5 and 25 % in the medium. The data obtained expanded the understanding of the diversity and ecological significance of denitrifying bacteria in the functioning of arid ecosystems and make it possible to identify strains producing enzymes of industrial importance.

The power of two: An artificial microbial consortium for the conversion of inulin into Polyhydroxyalkanoates

One of the major issues for the microbial production of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) is to secure renewable, non-food biomass feedstocks to feed the fermentation process. Inulin, a polydisperse fructan that accumulates as reserve polysaccharide in the roots of several low-requirement crops, has the potential to face this challenge. In this work, a "substrate facilitator" microbial consortium was designed to address PHA production using inulin as feedstock. A microbial collection of Bacillus species was screened for efficient inulinase producer and the genome of the selected strain, RHF15, identified as Bacillus gibsonii, was analysed unravelling its wide catabolic potential. RHF15 was co-cultured with Cupriavidus necator, an established PHA producer, lacking the ability to metabolize inulin. A Central Composite Rotary Design (CCRD) was applied to optimise PHA synthesis from inulin by the designed artificial microbial consortium, assessing the impact of species inoculum ratio and inulin and N-source concentrations. In the optimized conditions, a maximum of 1.9 g L^-1 of Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), corresponding to ~80% (g_polymer/g_CDW) polymer content was achieved. The investigated approach represents an effective process optimization method, potentially applicable to the production of PHA from other complex C- sources.

Biotechnological Aspects of Salt-Tolerant Xylanases: A Review

β-1,4-Xylan is the main component of hemicelluloses in land plant cell walls, whereas β-1,3-xylan is widely found in seaweed cell walls. Complete hydrolysis of xylan requires a series of synergistically acting xylanases. High-saline environments, such as saline-alkali lands and oceans, frequently occur in nature and are also involved in a broad range of various industrial processes. Thus, salt-tolerant xylanases may contribute to high-salt and marine food processing, aquatic feed production, industrial wastewater treatment, saline-alkali soil improvement, and global carbon cycle, with great commercial and environmental benefits. This review mainly introduces the definition, sources, classification, biochemical and molecular characteristics, adaptation mechanisms, and biotechnological applications of salt-tolerant xylanases. The scope of development for salt-tolerant xylanases is also discussed. It is anticipated that this review would serve as a reference for further development and utilization of salt-tolerant xylanases and other salt-tolerant enzymes.

Exploiting Microbes in the Petroleum Field: Analyzing the Credibility of Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery (MEOR)

Crude oil is a major energy source that is exploited globally to achieve economic growth. To meet the growing demands for oil, in an environment of stringent environmental regulations and economic and technical pressure, industries have been required to develop novel oil salvaging techniques. The remaining ~70% of the world’s conventional oil (one-third of the available total petroleum) is trapped in depleted and marginal reservoirs, and could thus be potentially recovered and used. The only means of extracting this oil is via microbial enhanced oil recovery (MEOR). This tertiary oil recovery method employs indigenous microorganisms and their metabolic products to enhance oil mobilization. Although a significant amount of research has been undertaken on MEOR, the absence of convincing evidence has contributed to the petroleum industry’s low interest, as evidenced by the issuance of 400+ patents on MEOR that have not been accepted by this sector. The majority of the world’s MEOR field trials are briefly described in this review. However, the presented research fails to provide valid verification that the microbial system has the potential to address the identified constraints. Rather than promising certainty, MEOR will persist as an unverified concept unless further research and investigations are carried out.

Bioprospecting potentials of moderately halophilic bacteria and the isolation of squalene producers from Kuwait sabkha

Sabkhas in Kuwait are unique hypersaline marine environments under-explored for bacterial community composition and bioprospecting. The 16S rRNA sequence analysis of 46 isolates with distinct morphology from two Kuwait sabkhas recovered 11 genera. Phylum Firmicutes dominated these isolates, and Bacillus (32.6%) was recovered as the dominant genera, followed by Halococcus (17.4%). These isolates were moderately halophilic, and some of them showed tolerance and growth at extreme levels of salt (20%), pH (5 and/or 11), and temperature (55 °C). A higher percentage of isolates harbored protease (63.0), followed by DNase (41.3), amylase (41.3), and lipase (32.6). Selected isolates showed antimicrobial activity against E. faecalis and isolated Halomonas shengliensis, and Idiomarina piscisalsi harbored gene coding for dNDP-glucose 4,6-dehydratase (Glu 1), indicating their potential to produce biomolecules with deoxysugar moieties. Palmitic acid or oleic acid was the dominant fatty acid, and seven isolates had some polyunsaturated fatty acids (linolenic or γ-linolenic acid). Interestingly, six isolates belonging to Planococcus and Oceanobacillus genus produced squalene, a bioactive isoprenoid molecule. Their content increased 30-50% in the presence of Terbinafine. The potential bioactivities and extreme growth conditions make this untapped bacterial diversity a promising candidate for future bioprospecting studies.

Bioprospecting of Novel Extremozymes From Prokaryotes-The Advent of Culture-Independent Methods

Extremophiles are remarkable organisms that thrive in the harshest environments on Earth, such as hydrothermal vents, hypersaline lakes and pools, alkaline soda lakes, deserts, cold oceans, and volcanic areas. These organisms have developed several strategies to overcome environmental stress and nutrient limitations. Thus, they are among the best model organisms to study adaptive mechanisms that lead to stress tolerance. Genetic and structural information derived from extremophiles and extremozymes can be used for bioengineering other nontolerant enzymes. Furthermore, extremophiles can be a valuable resource for novel biotechnological and biomedical products due to their biosynthetic properties. However, understanding life under extreme conditions is challenging due to the difficulties of in vitro cultivation and observation since > 99% of organisms cannot be cultivated. Consequently, only a minor percentage of the potential extremophiles on Earth have been discovered and characterized. Herein, we present a review of culture-independent methods, sequence-based metagenomics (SBM), and single amplified genomes (SAGs) for studying enzymes from extremophiles, with a focus on prokaryotic (archaea and bacteria) microorganisms. Additionally, we provide a comprehensive list of extremozymes discovered via metagenomics and SAGs.

Bioremediation of Diesel Contaminated Marine Water by Bacteria: A Review and Bibliometric Analysis

Oil pollution can cause tremendous harm and risk to the water ecosystem and organisms due to the relatively recalcitrant hydrocarbon compounds. The current chemical method used to treat the ecosystem polluted with diesel is incompetent and expensive for a large-scale treatment. Thus, bioremediation technique seems urgent and requires more attention to solve the existing environmental problems. Biological agents, including microorganisms, carry out the biodegradation process where organic pollutants are mineralized into water, carbon dioxide, and less toxic compounds. Hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria are ubiquitous in the nature and often exploited for their specialty to bioremediate the oil-polluted area. The capability of these bacteria to utilize hydrocarbon compounds as a carbon source is the main reason behind their species exploitation. Recently, microbial remediation by halophilic bacteria has received many positive feedbacks as an efficient pollutant degrader. These halophilic bacteria are also considered as suitable candidates for bioremediation in hypersaline environments. However, only a few microbial species have been isolated with limited available information on the biodegradation of organic pollutants by halophilic bacteria. The fundamental aspect for successful bioremediation includes selecting appropriate microbes with a high capability of pollutant degradation. Therefore, high salinity bacteria are remarkable microbes for diesel degradation. This paper provides an updated overview of diesel hydrocarbon degradation, the effects of oil spills on the environment and living organisms, and the potential role of high salinity bacteria to decontaminate the organic pollutants in the water environment.

Halophilic archaea and their potential to generate renewable fuels and chemicals

Lignocellulosic biofuels and chemicals have great potential to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels and mitigate air pollution by cutting down on greenhouse gas emissions. Chemical, thermal, and enzymatic processes are used to release the sugars from the lignocellulosic biomass for conversion to biofuels. These processes often operate at extreme pH conditions, high salt concentrations, and/or high temperature. These harsh treatments add to the cost of the biofuels, as most known biocatalysts do not operate under these conditions. To increase the economic feasibility of biofuel production, microorganisms that thrive in extreme conditions are considered as ideal resources to generate biofuels and value-added products. Halophilic archaea (haloarchaea) are isolated from hypersaline ecosystems with high salt concentrations approaching saturation (1.5-5 M salt concentration) including environments with extremes in pH and/or temperature. The unique traits of haloarchaea and their enzymes that enable them to sustain catalytic activity in these environments make them attractive resources for use in bioconversion processes that must occur across a wide range of industrial conditions. Biocatalysts (enzymes) derived from haloarchaea occupy a unique niche in organic solvent, salt-based, and detergent industries. This review focuses on the use of haloarchaea and their enzymes to develop and improve biofuel production. The review also highlights how haloarchaea produce value-added products, such as antibiotics, carotenoids, and bioplastic precursors, and can do so using feedstocks considered "too salty" for most microbial processes including wastes from the olive-mill, shell fish, and biodiesel industries.

Dehalogenase-producing halophiles and their potential role in bioremediation

This review aims to briefly describe the potential role of dehalogenase-producing halophilic bacteria in decontamination of organohalide pollutants. Hypersaline habitats pose challenges to life because of low water activity (water content) and is considered as the largest and ultimate sink for pollutants due to naturally and anthropogenic activities in which a substantial amount of ecological contaminants are organohalides. Several such environments appear to host and support substantial diversity of extremely halophilic and halotolerant bacteria as well as halophilic archaea. Biodegradation of several toxic inorganic and organic compounds in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions are carried out by halophilic microbes. Therefore, remediation of polluted marine/hypersaline environments are the main scorching issues in the field of biotechnology. Although many microbial species are reported as effective pollutants degrader, but little has been isolated from marine/hypersaline environments. Therefore, more novel microbial species with dehalogenase-producing ability are still desired.

N-Ribosyltransferase From Archaeoglobus veneficus: A Novel Halotolerant and Thermostable Biocatalyst for the Synthesis of Purine Ribonucleoside Analogs

Nucleoside-2′-deoxyribosyl-transferases (NDTs) catalyze a transglycosylation reaction consisting of the exchange of the 2′-deoxyribose moiety between a purine and/or pyrimidine nucleoside and a purine and/or pyrimidine base. Because NDTs are highly specific for 2′-deoxyribonucleosides they generally display poor activity on modified C2′ and C3′ nucleosides and this limitation hampers their applicability as biocatalysts for the synthesis of modified nucleosides. We now report the production and purification of a novel NDT from Archaeoglobus veneficus that is endowed with native ribosyltransferase activity and hence it is more properly classified as an N-ribosyltransferase (AvNRT). Biophysical and biochemical characterization revealed that AvNRT is a homotetramer that displays maximum activity at 80°C and pH 6 and shows remarkably high stability at high temperatures (60–80°C). In addition, the activity of AvNRT was found to increase up to 2-fold in 4 M NaCl aqueous solution and to be retained in the presence of several water-miscible organic solvents. For completeness, and as a proof of concept for possible industrial applications, this thermophilic and halotolerant biocatalyst was successfully employed in the synthesis of different purine ribonucleoside analogs.

Diversity of hydrolase-producing halophilic bacteria and evaluation of their enzymatic activities in submerged cultures

Purpose

In this work, we assessed the diversity of culturable halophilic bacteria that produce hydrolytic enzymes from both natural and artificial hypersaline regions in the pre-Rif region of Morocco.

Methods

Bacteria were isolated from three hypersaline sites, in solid medium supplemented with various salt concentrations ranging from 0 to 330 g/L. Physical and chemical characteristics of samples from the isolation site were determined to suggest eventual correlations with the occurrence of the halophilic bacteria. Assays on enzymatic activities were performed in submerged cultures in the presence of various salt concentrations and appropriate substrates.

Results

Out of a collection of 227 halophilic bacteria, four halophilic groups were established as slightly halophilic, moderately halophilic, halotolerant, or extremely halophilic, with a predominance of halophilic bacteria in the natural hypersaline sites compared to the artificial one. Within this collection, 189 strains showed important hydrolytic activities in submerged cultures with enzymatic activities up to 76 U/mg. Strain characterization and identification was based on phenotypic and molecular traits and allowed the identification of at least 26 genera including Bacillus, Chthonibacter, Mariniabilia, Halobacillus, Salinococcus, Cerasicoccus, Ulvibacter, Halorubrum, Jeatgalicoccus, Brevibacterium, Sanguibacter, Shewanella, Exiguobacterium, Gemella, and Planomicrobium.

Conclusion

Data from this study give insights about the origin and the occurrence of halophilic bacteria in natural hypersaline environments compared to artificial hypersaline sites. The occurrence of halophilic hydrolase enzymes from halophilic bacteria gives insights to different applications in biotechnology, thanks to their ability to produce adaptive enzymes and survival strategies to overcome harsh conditions.

Deep Hypersaline Anoxic Basins as Untapped Reservoir of Polyextremophilic Prokaryotes of Biotechnological Interest

Deep-sea hypersaline anoxic basins (DHABs) are considered to be among the most extreme ecosystems on our planet, allowing only the life of polyextremophilic organisms. DHABs’ prokaryotes exhibit extraordinary metabolic capabilities, representing a hot topic for microbiologists and biotechnologists. These are a source of enzymes and new secondary metabolites with valuable applications in different biotechnological fields. Here, we review the current knowledge on prokaryotic diversity in DHABs, highlighting the biotechnological applications of identified taxa and isolated species. The discovery of new species and molecules from these ecosystems is expanding our understanding of life limits and is expected to have a strong impact on biotechnological applications.

Haloferax volcanii for biotechnology applications: challenges, current state and perspectives

Haloferax volcanii is an obligate halophilic archaeon with its origin in the Dead Sea. Simple laboratory culture conditions and a wide range of genetic tools have made it a model organism for studying haloarchaeal cell biology. Halophilic enzymes of potential interest to biotechnology have opened up the application of this organism in biocatalysis, bioremediation, nanobiotechnology, bioplastics and the biofuel industry. Functionally active halophilic proteins can be easily expressed in a halophilic environment, and an extensive genetic toolkit with options for regulated protein overexpression has allowed the purification of biotechnologically important enzymes from different halophiles in H. volcanii. However, corrosion mediated damage caused to stainless-steel bioreactors by high salt concentrations and a tendency to form biofilms when cultured in high volume are some of the challenges of applying H. volcanii in biotechnology. The ability to employ expressed active proteins in immobilized cells within a porous biocompatible matrix offers new avenues for exploiting H. volcanii in biotechnology. This review critically evaluates the various application potentials, challenges and toolkits available for using this extreme halophilic organism in biotechnology.

Properties and Applications of Extremozymes from Deep-Sea Extremophilic Microorganisms: A Mini Review

The deep sea, which is defined as sea water below a depth of 1000 m, is one of the largest biomes on the Earth, and is recognised as an extreme environment due to its range of challenging physical parameters, such as pressure, salinity, temperature, chemicals and metals (such as hydrogen sulphide, copper and arsenic). For surviving in such extreme conditions, deep-sea extremophilic microorganisms employ a variety of adaptive strategies, such as the production of extremozymes, which exhibit outstanding thermal or cold adaptability, salt tolerance and/or pressure tolerance. Owing to their great stability, deep-sea extremozymes have numerous potential applications in a wide range of industries, such as the agricultural, food, chemical, pharmaceutical and biotechnological sectors. This enormous economic potential combined with recent advances in sampling and molecular and omics technologies has led to the emergence of research regarding deep-sea extremozymes and their primary applications in recent decades. In the present review, we introduced recent advances in research regarding deep-sea extremophiles and the enzymes they produce and discussed their potential industrial applications, with special emphasis on thermophilic, psychrophilic, halophilic and piezophilic enzymes.

Microbial communities of the Mediterranean rocky shore: ecology and biotechnological potential of the sea-land transition

Microbial communities from harsh environments hold great promise as sources of biotechnologically relevant strains and compounds. In the present work, we have characterized the microorganisms from the supralittoral and splash zone in three different rocky locations of the Western Mediterranean coast, a tough environment characterized by high levels of irradiation and large temperature and salinity fluctuations. We have retrieved a complete view of the ecology and functional aspects of these communities and assessed the biotechnological potential of the cultivable microorganisms. All three locations displayed very similar taxonomic profiles, with the genus Rubrobacter and the families Xenococcaceae, Flammeovirgaceae, Phyllobacteriaceae, Rhodobacteraceae and Trueperaceae being the most abundant taxa; and Ascomycota and halotolerant archaea as members of the eukaryotic and archaeal community respectively. In parallel, the culture-dependent approach yielded a 100-isolates collection, out of which 12 displayed high antioxidant activities, as evidenced by two in vitro (hydrogen peroxide and DPPH) and confirmed in vivo with Caenorhabditis elegans assays, in which two isolates, CR22 and CR24, resulted in extended survival rates of the nematodes. This work is the first complete characterization of the Mediterranean splash-zone coastal microbiome, and our results indicate that this microbial niche is home of an extremophilic community that holds biotechnological potential.

Diversity of esterase and lipase producing haloalkaliphilic bacteria from Lake Magadi in Kenya

Lipids are hydrocarbons comprised of long-chain fatty acids and are found in all living things. In the environment, microorganisms degrade them to obtain energy using esterases and lipases. These enzymes are nowadays used in different industrial applications. We report isolation of 24 bacteria with esteresic and lipolytic activity from Lake Magadi, Kenya. The isolates were characterised using morphological, biochemical, and molecular methods. Isolates grew at an optimum salt concentration of 5-8% (w/v), pH range of 8.0-9.0, and temperature range of 35-40°C. The isolates were positive for esterase and lipase assay as well as other extracellular enzymes. Phylogenetic analysis of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene showed that the isolates were affiliated to the genus Bacillus, Alkalibacterium, Staphylococcus, Micrococcus, Halomonas, and Alkalilimnicola. None of the bacterial isolates produced antimicrobial agents, and all of them were resistant to trimethoprim and nalidixic acid but susceptible to streptomycin, amoxillin, chloramphenicol, and cefotaxime. Growth at elevated pH, salt, and temperature is an indicator that the enzymes from these organisms could function well under haloalkaline conditions. Therefore, Lake Magadi could be a good source of isolates with the potential to produce unique biocatalysts for the biotechnology industry.

Calcium ion induced thermodynamic stability, bisubstrate specificity, and differential organic solvent tolerance of a predominantly β-sheet serine protease from Bacillus aquimaris VITP4

The present study was aimed to get insights on the role of calcium ions on the thermodynamic stability, substrate specificity, and organic solvent compatibility of the extracellular protease produced by Bacillus aquimaris VITP4. Presence of Ca²⁺ enhanced the activity of the enzyme in the temperature range of 30-60 °C and increased the half-life from 164 to 234 Min. Circular dichroism experiments indicated that the temperature of half-denaturation (T_m ) of the protease increased from 76 to 86 °C. As judged by fluorescence emission profiles, the overall fold of the enzyme around the tryptophan residues could be similar. Further, thermal inactivation experiments revealed that the enzyme followed first order kinetics, with increase in energy for inactivation (E_ai ) by 24.2 ± 1.2 kJ mol ^-1 in the presence of Ca²⁺ . Studies with synthetic peptides as well as with bovine serum albumin signified preferential hydrolysis of the peptide bonds at the C-terminus of alanine residues (with a k_cat /K_M of 141,400 M^-1  Sec^-1 ) and at the C-terminus of arginine residues with a lower specificity (72,400 M^-1  Sec^-1 ), indicating bisubstrate specificity of the enzyme. The enzyme was found to be compatible with organic solvents (50%, v/v) such as acetonitrile and butanol, indicating possible application under demanding nonaqueous conditions.

Culturable halophilic bacteria inhabiting Algerian saline ecosystems: A source of promising features and potentialities

This paper aims to characterize halophilic bacteria inhabiting Algerian Saline Ecosystems (Sebkha and Chott) located in arid and semi-arid ecoclimate zones (Northeastern Algeria). In addition, screening of enzymatic activities, heavy metal tolerance and antagonistic potential against phytopathogenic fungi were tested. A total of 74 bacterial isolates were screened and phylogenetically characterized using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The results showed a heterogeneous group of microorganisms falling within two major phyla, 52 strains belonging to Firmicutes (70.2%) and 22 strains (30.8%) of γ-Proteobacteria. In terms of main genera present, the isolates were belonging to Bacillus, Halobacillus, Lentibacillus, Oceanobacillus, Paraliobacillus, Planomicrobium, Salicola, Terribacillus, Thalassobacillus, Salibacterium, Salinicoccus, Virgibacillus, Halomonas, Halovibrio, and Idiomarina. Most of the enzymes producers were related to Bacillus, Halobacillus, and Virgibacillus genera and mainly active at 10% of growing salt concentrations. Furthermore, amylase, esterase, gelatinase, and nuclease activities ranked in the first place within the common hydrolytic enzymes. Overall, the isolates showed high minimal inhibitory concentration values (MIC) for Ni²⁺ and Cu²⁺ (0.625 to 5 mM) compared to Cd²⁺ (0.1 to 2 mM) and Zn²⁺ (0.156 to 2 mM). Moreover, ten isolated strains belonging to Bacillus, Virgibacillus and Halomonas genera, displayed high activity against the pathogenic fungi (Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium oxyporum, F. verticillioides and Phytophthora capsici). This study on halophilic bacteria of unexplored saline niches provides potential sources of biocatalysts and novel bioactive metabolites as well as promising candidates of biocontrol agents and eco-friendly tools for heavy metal bioremediation.

Granular Sludge Bed Processes in Anaerobic Digestion of Particle-Rich Substrates

Granular sludge bed (GSB) anaerobic digestion (AD) is a well-established method for efficient wastewater treatment, limited, however, by the wastewater particle content. This review is carried out to investigate how and to what extent feed particles influence GSB to evaluate the applicability of GSB to various types of slurries that are abundantly available. Sludge bed microorganisms evidently have mechanisms to retain feed particles for digestion. Disintegration and hydrolysis of such particulates are often the rate-limiting steps in AD. GSB running on particle-rich substrates and factors that affect these processes are stdied especially. Disintegration and hydrolysis models are therefore reviewed. How particles may influence other key processes within GSB is also discussed. Based on this, limitations and strategies for effective digestion of particle-rich substrates in high-rate AD reactors are evaluated.

Isolation, Identification and Enzymatic Activity of Halotolerant and Halophilic Fungi from the Great Sebkha of Oran in Northwestern of Algeria

The Great Sebkha of Oran is a closed depression located in northwestern of Algeria. Despite the ranking of this sebkha among the wetlands of global importance by Ramsar Convention in 2002, no studies on the fungal community in this area have been carried out. In our study, samples were collected from two different regions. The first region is characterized by halophilic vegetation and cereal crops and the second by a total absence of vegetation. The isolated strains were identified morphologically then by molecular analysis. The biotechnological interest of the strains was evaluated by testing their ability to grow at different concentration of NaCl and to produce extracellular enzymes (i.e., lipase, amylase, protease, and cellulase) on solid medium. The results showed that the soil of sebkha is alkaline, with the exception of the soil of cereal crops that is neutral, and extremely saline. In this work, the species Gymnoascus halophilus, Trichoderma gamsii, the two phytopathogenic fungi, Fusarium brachygibbosum and Penicillium allii, and the teleomorphic form of P. longicatenatum observed for the first time in this species, were isolated for the first time in Algeria. The halotolerance test revealed that the majority of the isolated are halotolerant. Wallemia sp. and two strains of G. halophilus are the only obligate halophilic strains. All strains are capable to secrete at least one of the four tested enzymes. The most interesting species presenting the highest enzymatic index were Aspergillus sp. strain A4, Chaetomium sp. strain H1, P. vinaceum, G. halophilus, Wallemia sp. and Ustilago cynodontis.

Temporal Analysis of the Microbial Community from the Crystallizer Ponds in Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico, Using Metagenomics

The Cabo Rojo solar salterns are a hypersaline environment located in a tropical climate, where conditions remain stable throughout the year. These conditions can favor the establishment of steady microbial communities. Little is known about the microbial composition that thrives in hypersaline environments in the tropics. The main goal of this study was to assess the microbial diversity present in the crystallizer ponds of Cabo Rojo, in terms of structure and metabolic processes across time using metagenomic techniques. Three samplings (December 2014, March and July 2016) were carried out, where water samples (50 L each) were filtered through a Millipore pressurized filtering system. DNA was subsequently extracted using physical-chemical methods and sequenced using paired end Illumina technologies. The sequencing effort produced three paired end libraries with a total of 111,816,040 reads, that were subsequently assembled into three metagenomes. Out of the phyla detected, the microbial diversity was dominated in all three samples by Euryarchaeota, followed by Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria. However, sample MFF1 (for Muestreo Final Fraternidad) exhibited a higher diversity, with 12 prokaryotic phyla detected at 34% NaCl (w/v), when compared to samples MFF2 and MFF3, which only exhibited three phyla. Precipitation events might be one of the contributing factors to the change in the microbial community composition through time. Diversity at genus level revealed a more stable community structure, with an overwhelming dominance of the square archaeon Haloquadratum in the three metagenomes. Furthermore, functional annotation was carried out in order to detect genes related to metabolic processes, such as carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur cycles. The presence of gene sequences related to nitrogen fixation, ammonia oxidation, sulfate reduction, sulfur oxidation, and phosphate solubilization were detected. Through binning methods, four putative novel genomes were obtained, including a possible novel genus belonging to the Bacteroidetes and possible new species for the genera Natronomonas, Halomicrobium, and Haloquadratum. Using a metagenomic approach, a 3-year study has been performed in a Caribbean hypersaline environment. When compared to other salterns around the world, the Cabo Rojo salterns harbor a similar community composition, which is stable through time. Moreover, an analysis of gene composition highlights the importance of the microbial community in the biogeochemical cycles at hypersaline environments.

Broad Environmental Tolerance for a Salicola Host-Phage Pair Isolated from the Cargill Solar Saltworks, Newark, CA, USA

Phages greatly influence the ecology and evolution of their bacterial hosts; however, compared to hosts, a relatively low number of phages, especially halophilic phages, have been studied. This study describes a comparative investigation of physicochemical tolerance between a strain of the halophilic bacterium, Salicola, isolated from the Cargill Saltworks (Newark, CA, USA) and its associated phage. The host grew in media between pH 6-8.5, had a salinity growth optimum of 20% total salts (ranging from 10%-30%) and an upper temperature growth limit of 48 °C. The host utilized 61 of 190 substrates tested using BIOLOG Phenotype MicroArrays. The CGφ29 phage, one of only four reported Salicola phages, is a DNA virus of the Siphoviridae family. Overall, the phage tolerated a broader range of environmental conditions than its host (salinity 0-30% total salts; pH 3-9; upper thermal limit 80 °C) and is the most thermotolerant halophilic phage ever reported. This study is the most comprehensive investigation to date of a Salicola host-phage pair and provides novel insights into extreme environmental tolerances among bacteriophages.

Isolation and characterization of bacteria associated with the rhizosphere of halophytes (Salsola stocksii and Atriplex amnicola) for production of hydrolytic enzymes

Microbes from hypersaline environments are useful in biotechnology as sources of novel enzymes and proteins. The current study aimed to characterize halophilic bacteria from the rhizosphere of halophytes (Salsola stocksii and Atriplex amnicola), non-rhizospheric, and brine lake-bank soils collected from Khewra Salt Mine and screening of these bacterial strains for industrially important enzymes. A total of 45 bacterial isolates from the rhizosphere of Salsola, 38 isolates from Atriplex, 24 isolates from non-rhizospheric, and 25 isolates from lake-bank soils were identified by using 16S rRNA gene analysis. Phylogenetic analysis showed that bacterial strains belonging to Bacillus, Halobacillus, and Kocuria were dominant in the rhizosphere of halophytes (Salsola and Atriplex), and Halobacillus and Halomonas were dominating genera from non-rhizospheric and lake-bank soils. Mostly identified strains were moderately halophilic bacteria with optimum growth at 1.5-3.0 M salt concentrations. Most of the bacterial exhibited lipase, protease, cellulase, amylase, gelatinase, and catalase activities. Halophilic and halotolerant Bacilli (AT2RP4, HL1RS13, NRS4HaP9, and LK3HaP7) identified in this study showed optimum lipase, protease, cellulase, and amylase activities at 1.0-1.5 M NaCl concentration, pH 7-8, and temperature 37 °C. These results indicated that halophilic and halotolerant bacteria can be used for bioconversion of organic compounds to useful products under extreme conditions.

Exploring Marine Environments for the Identification of Extremophiles and Their Enzymes for Sustainable and Green Bioprocesses

Sea environments harbor a wide variety of life forms that have adapted to live in hard and sometimes extreme conditions. Among the marine living organisms, extremophiles represent a group of microorganisms that attract increasing interest in relation to their ability to produce an array of molecules that enable them to thrive in almost every marine environment. Extremophiles can be found in virtually every extreme environment on Earth, since they can tolerate very harsh environmental conditions in terms of temperature, pH, pressure, radiation, etc. Marine extremophiles are the focus of growing interest in relation to their ability to produce biotechnologically useful enzymes, the so-called extremozymes. Thanks to their resistance to temperature, pH, salt, and pollutants, marine extremozymes are promising biocatalysts for new and sustainable industrial processes, thus representing an opportunity for several biotechnological applications. Since the marine microbioma, i.e., the complex of microorganisms living in sea environments, is still largely unexplored finding new species is a central issue for green biotechnology. Here we described the main marine environments where extremophiles can be found, some existing or potential biotechnological applications of marine extremozymes for biofuels production and bioremediation, and some possible approaches for the search of new biotechnologically useful species from marine environments.

NaCl-saturated brines are thermodynamically moderate, rather than extreme, microbial habitats

NaCl-saturated brines such as saltern crystalliser ponds, inland salt lakes, deep-sea brines and liquids-of-deliquescence on halite are commonly regarded as a paradigm for the limit of life on Earth. There are, however, other habitats that are thermodynamically more extreme. Typically, NaCl-saturated environments contain all domains of life and perform complete biogeochemical cycling. Despite their reduced water activity, ∼0.755 at 5 M NaCl, some halophiles belonging to the Archaea and Bacteria exhibit optimum growth/metabolism in these brines. Furthermore, the recognised water-activity limit for microbial function, ∼0.585 for some strains of fungi, lies far below 0.755. Other biophysical constraints on the microbial biosphere (temperatures of >121°C; pH > 12; and high chaotropicity; e.g. ethanol at >18.9% w/v (24% v/v) and MgCl2 at >3.03 M) can prevent any cellular metabolism or ecosystem function. By contrast, NaCl-saturated environments contain biomass-dense, metabolically diverse, highly active and complex microbial ecosystems; and this underscores their moderate character. Here, we survey the evidence that NaCl-saturated brines are biologically permissive, fertile habitats that are thermodynamically mid-range rather than extreme. Indeed, were NaCl sufficiently soluble, some halophiles might grow at concentrations of up to 8 M. It may be that the finite solubility of NaCl has stabilised the genetic composition of halophile populations and limited the action of natural selection in driving halophile evolution towards greater xerophilicity. Further implications are considered for the origin(s) of life and other aspects of astrobiology.

Phylogenetic diversity and biotechnological potentials of marine bacteria from continental slope of eastern Arabian Sea

Marine environments are substantially untapped source for the isolation of bacteria with the capacity to produce various extracellular hydrolytic enzymes, which have important ecological roles and promising biotechnological applications. Hydrolases constitute a class of enzymes widely distributed in nature from bacteria to higher eukaryotes. Marine microbial communities are highly diverse and have evolved during extended evolutionary processes of physiological adaptations under the influence of a variety of ecological conditions and selection pressures. A number of marine hydrolases have been described, including amylases, lipases and proteases, which are being used extensively for biotechnological applications. The present study was carried out to isolate marine bacteria from continental slope sediments of the eastern Arabian Sea and explore their biotechnological potential. Among the 119 isolates screened, producers of amylases (15%), caseinases (40%), cellulases (40%), gelatinases (60%), lipases (26%), ligninases (33%), phytase (11%) and Malachite Green dye degraders (16%) were detected. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing showed that predominant marine sediment bacteria possessing more than four enzymatic activities belonged to the phyla Firmicutes and Proteobacteria, was assigned to the genera Bacillus, Planococcus, Staphylococcus, Chryseomicrobium, Exiguobacterium and Halomonas. Biodegradation of the dye Malachite Green using the liquid decolorization assay showed that both the individual cultures (Bacillus vietnamensis, Planococcus maritimus and Bacillus pumilus) and their consortium were able to decolorize more than 70% of dye within 24 h of incubation. This is the first report on diversity and extracellular hydrolytic enzymatic activities and bioremediation properties of bacteria from continental slope sediment of eastern Arabian Sea.

Enhanced halophilic lipase secretion by Marinobacter litoralis SW-45 and its potential fatty acid esters release

An approach was made to enhance the halophilic lipase secretion by a newly isolated moderate halophilic Marinobacter litoralis SW-45, through the statistical optimization of Plackett-Burman (PB) experimental design and the Face Centered Central Composite Design (FCCCD). Initially, PB statistical design was used to screen the medium components and process parameters, while the One-factor-at-a-time technique was availed to find the optimum level of significant parameters. It was found that MgSO₄  · 7H₂ O, NaCl, agitation speed, FeSO₄  · 7H₂ O, yeast extract and KCl positively influence the halophilic lipase production, whereas temperature, carbon source (maltose), inducer (olive oil), inoculum size, and casein-peptone had a negative effect on enzyme production. The optimum level of halophilic lipase production was obtained at 3.0 g L^-1 maltose, 1% (v/v) olive oil, 30 °C growth temperature and 4% inoculum volume (v/v). Further optimization by FCCCD was revealed 1.7 folds improvement in the halophilic lipase production from 0.603 U ml^-1 to 1.0307 U ml^-1 . Functional and biochemical characterizations displayed that the lipase was significantly active and stable in the pH ranges of 7.0-9.5, temperature (30-50 °C), and NaCl concentration (0-21%). The lipase was maximally active at pH 8.0, 12% (w/v) NaCl, and 50 °C temperature. Besides, M. litoralis SW-45 lipase was found to possess the promising industrial potential to be utilized as a biocatalyst for the esterification.

Selection and community analysis of halophilic mixed exoelectrogens from salt lake soils

In this study, two slightly different halophilic mixed exoelectrogens were enriched and selected from salt lake soils. The results showed that the selected mixed exoelectrogens ESA from the sample OSA (Xiaochaidan Lake soil) and ESB from the sample OSB (Dachaidan Lake soil), without additional NaCl, produced current densities of 1231.1 and 1050.2 μA cm-2, which were 89.6% and 61.7% higher than the typical exoelectrogen G. sulfurreducens PCA, respectively. ESA and ESB could produce 2.7 and 1.9 times higher currents than that obtained using G. sulfurreducens PCA with an additional 1.5% NaCl, respectively. The community diversity data demonstrated that Proteobacteria was the most abundant phylum, in which Enterobacteriaceae and Rhodocyclaceae were the dominant families for both ESA and ESB. Furthermore, at the genus level, the dominant genera Propionivibrio and Escherichia-Shigella were also shared by both. ESA had higher species diversity compared to ESB.