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Generalova AN, Vikhrov AA, Prostyakova AI, Apresyan SV, Stepanov AG, Myasoedov MS, Oleinikov VA. Polymers in 3D printing of external maxillofacial prostheses and in their retention systems. Int J Pharm 2024; 657:124181. [PMID: 38697583 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2024.124181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
Maxillofacial defects, arising from trauma, oncological disease or congenital abnormalities, detrimentally affect daily life. Prosthetic repair offers the aesthetic and functional reconstruction with the help of materials mimicking natural tissues. 3D polymer printing enables the design of patient-specific prostheses with high structural complexity, as well as rapid and low-cost fabrication on-demand. However, 3D printing for prosthetics is still in the early stage of development and faces various challenges for widespread use. This is because the most suitable polymers for maxillofacial restoration are soft materials that do not have the required printability, mechanical strength of the printed parts, as well as functionality. This review focuses on the challenges and opportunities of 3D printing techniques for production of polymer maxillofacial prostheses using computer-aided design and modeling software. Review discusses the widely used polymers, as well as their blends and composites, which meet the most important assessment criteria, such as the physicochemical, biological, aesthetic properties and processability in 3D printing. In addition, strategies for improving the polymer properties, such as their printability, mechanical strength, and their ability to print multimaterial and architectural structures are highlighted. The current state of the prosthetic retention system is presented with a focus on actively used polymer adhesives and the recently implemented prosthesis-supporting osseointegrated implants, with an emphasis on their creation from 3D-printed polymers. The successful prosthetics is discussed in terms of the specificity of polymer materials at the restoration site. The approaches and technological prospects are also explored through the examples of the nasal, auricle and ocular prostheses, ranging from prototypes to end-use products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alla N Generalova
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, 117997 Moscow, Russia; Federal Scientific Research Center "Crystallography and Photonics" of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 119333 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Alexander A Vikhrov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Anna I Prostyakova
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Samvel V Apresyan
- Institute of Digital Dentistry, Medical Institute, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Miklukho-Maklaya 6, 117198 Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander G Stepanov
- Institute of Digital Dentistry, Medical Institute, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Miklukho-Maklaya 6, 117198 Moscow, Russia
| | - Maxim S Myasoedov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Vladimir A Oleinikov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, 117997 Moscow, Russia
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2
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Glaskova-Kuzmina T, Dejus D, Jātnieks J, Vīndedze E, Bute I, Sevcenko J, Aniskevich A, Stankevich S, Boobani B. The Tensile, Thermal and Flame-Retardant Properties of Polyetherimide and Polyetherketoneketone Processed via Fused Filament Fabrication. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:336. [PMID: 38337225 DOI: 10.3390/polym16030336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Polymer materials are increasingly widely used in high-fire-risk applications, such as aviation interior components. This study aimed to compare the tensile, thermal, and flame-retardant properties of test samples made from ultra-performance materials, polyetherimide (PEI) and polyetherketoneketone (PEKK), using the fused filament fabrication process (FFF). The tensile tests were performed for these materials at different raster angles (0, 45, and 90°). The thermomechanical tests were done in the axial, perpendicular, and through-thickness directions to the extruded filaments. The impact of printing parameters on the flame retardancy of 3D-printed samples was investigated in vertical burn tests with varying specimen thicknesses and printing directions. Experimentally, it was testified that PEKK had better isotropic behaviour than PEI for mechanical performance, thermal expansion, and fire-resistant properties, which are essential in fabricating intricately shaped products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatjana Glaskova-Kuzmina
- Baltic3D.eu, Braslas 22D, LV-1035 Riga, Latvia
- Institute for Mechanics of Materials, University of Latvia, Jelgavas 3, LV-1004 Riga, Latvia
| | | | | | | | - Irina Bute
- Institute for Mechanics of Materials, University of Latvia, Jelgavas 3, LV-1004 Riga, Latvia
| | - Jevgenijs Sevcenko
- Institute for Mechanics of Materials, University of Latvia, Jelgavas 3, LV-1004 Riga, Latvia
| | - Andrey Aniskevich
- Institute for Mechanics of Materials, University of Latvia, Jelgavas 3, LV-1004 Riga, Latvia
| | - Stanislav Stankevich
- Institute for Mechanics of Materials, University of Latvia, Jelgavas 3, LV-1004 Riga, Latvia
| | - Behnam Boobani
- Latvian Academy of Sport Education, Brivibas 333, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia
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Costa JM, Sequeiros EW, Vieira MF. Fused Filament Fabrication for Metallic Materials: A Brief Review. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:7505. [PMID: 38138650 PMCID: PMC10744462 DOI: 10.3390/ma16247505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
Fused filament fabrication (FFF) is an extrusion-based additive manufacturing (AM) technology mostly used to produce thermoplastic parts. However, producing metallic or ceramic parts by FFF is also a sintered-based AM process. FFF for metallic parts can be divided into five steps: (1) raw material selection and feedstock mixture (including palletization), (2) filament production (extrusion), (3) production of AM components using the filament extrusion process, (4) debinding, and (5) sintering. These steps are interrelated, where the parameters interact with the others and have a key role in the integrity and quality of the final metallic parts. FFF can produce high-accuracy and complex metallic parts, potentially revolutionizing the manufacturing industry and taking AM components to a new level. In the FFF technology for metallic materials, material compatibility, production quality, and cost-effectiveness are the challenges to overcome to make it more competitive compared to other AM technologies, like the laser processes. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the recent developments in FFF for metallic materials, including the metals and binders used, the challenges faced, potential applications, and the impact of FFF on the manufacturing (prototyping and end parts), design freedom, customization, sustainability, supply chain, among others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose M. Costa
- Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal; (E.W.S.); (M.F.V.)
- LAETA/INEGI—Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Elsa W. Sequeiros
- Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal; (E.W.S.); (M.F.V.)
- LAETA/INEGI—Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Manuel F. Vieira
- Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal; (E.W.S.); (M.F.V.)
- LAETA/INEGI—Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
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Sousa J, Teixeira PF, Hilliou L, Covas JA. Experimental Validation of a Micro-Extrusion Set-Up with In-Line Rheometry for the Production and Monitoring of Filaments for 3D-Printing. MICROMACHINES 2023; 14:1496. [PMID: 37630032 PMCID: PMC10456369 DOI: 10.3390/mi14081496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
The main objective of this work is to validate an in-line micro-slit rheometer and a micro-extrusion line, both designed for the in-line monitoring and production of filaments for 3D printing using small amounts of material. The micro-filament extrusion line is first presented and its operational window is assessed. The throughputs ranged between 0.045 kg/h and 0.15 kg/h with a maximum 3% error and with a melt temperature control within 1 °C under the processing conditions tested for an average residence time of about 3 min. The rheological micro slit is then presented and assessed using low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and cyclic olefin copolymer (COC). The excellent matching between the in-line micro-rheological data and the data measured with off-line rotational and capillary rheometers validate the in-line micro-slit rheometer. However, it is shown that the COC does not follow the Cox-Merz rule. The COC filaments produced with the micro-extrusion line were successfully used in the 3D printing of specimens for tensile testing. The quality of both filaments (less than 6% variation in diameter along the filament's length) and printed specimens validated the whole micro-set-up, which was eventually used to deliver a rheological mapping of COC printability.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Loïc Hilliou
- Institute for Polymers and Composites, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal; (J.S.); (P.F.T.)
| | - José A. Covas
- Institute for Polymers and Composites, University of Minho, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal; (J.S.); (P.F.T.)
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Nagengast N, Bay C, Döpper F, Schmidt HW, Neuber C. Thermo-Mechanical Recyclability of Additively Manufactured Polypropylene and Polylactic Acid Parts and Polypropylene Support Structures. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15102291. [PMID: 37242864 DOI: 10.3390/polym15102291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 05/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Polymers have a reputation for several advantageous characteristics like chemical resistance, weight reduction, and simple form-giving processes. The rise of additive manufacturing technologies such as Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) has introduced an even more versatile production process that supported new product design and material concepts. This led to new investigations and innovations driven by the individualization of customized products. The other side of the coin contains an increasing resource and energy consumption satisfying the growing demand for polymer products. This turns into a magnitude of waste accumulation and increased resource consumption. Therefore, appropriate product and material design, taking into account end-of-life scenarios, is essential to limit or even close the loop of economically driven product systems. In this paper, a comparison of virgin and recycled biodegradable (polylactic acid (PLA)) and petroleum-based (polypropylene (PP) & support) filaments for extrusion-based Additive Manufacturing is presented. For the first time, the thermo-mechanical recycling setup contained a service-life simulation, shredding, and extrusion. Specimens and complex geometries with support materials were manufactured with both, virgin and recycled materials. An empirical assessment was executed through mechanical (ISO 527), rheological (ISO 1133), morphological, and dimensional testing. Furthermore, the surface properties of the PLA and PP printed parts were analyzed. In summary, PP parts and parts from its support structure showed, in consideration of all parameters, suitable recyclability with a marginal parameter variance in comparison to the virgin material. The PLA components showed an acceptable decline in the mechanical values but through thermo-mechanical degradation processes, rheological and dimensional properties of the filament dropped decently. This results in significantly identifiable artifacts of the product optics, based on an increase in surface roughness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niko Nagengast
- Chair of Biomechanics, Faculty of Engineering, University of Bayreuth, Universitaetsstrasse 9, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Christian Bay
- Research Center for Additive Innovations, University of Bayreuth, Universitaetsstrasse 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
- Chair of Manufacturing and Remanufacturing Technology, Faculty of Engineering, University of Bayreuth, Universitaetsstrasse 9, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Frank Döpper
- Research Center for Additive Innovations, University of Bayreuth, Universitaetsstrasse 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
- Chair of Manufacturing and Remanufacturing Technology, Faculty of Engineering, University of Bayreuth, Universitaetsstrasse 9, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Hans-Werner Schmidt
- Chair of Macromolecular Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Science, University of Bayreuth, Universitaetsstrasse 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
- Bavarian Polymer Institute, University of Bayreuth, Universitaetsstrasse 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Christian Neuber
- Chair of Macromolecular Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Science, University of Bayreuth, Universitaetsstrasse 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
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Pérez-Castillo JL, Mora A, Perez-Santiago R, Roman-Flores A, Ahmad R, Cuan-Urquizo E. Flexural Properties of Lattices Fabricated with Planar and Curved Layered Fused Filament Fabrication. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:ma16093451. [PMID: 37176330 PMCID: PMC10179957 DOI: 10.3390/ma16093451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
The use of curved layers in fused filament fabrication could lead to various advantages in surface finishing and mechanical properties. Here, the influence of three different structural and manufacturing parameters (volume fraction, raster arrangement, and the use of curved or planar layers) on the mechanical properties of lattice structures under three-point bending is studied. Two different raster arrangements were considered, i.e., those with rasters at planes parallel to the principal axes of the samples and those diagonally arranged, all at four different volume fractions. All different samples were additively manufactured using planar and curved layers. Samples were further dimensionally inspected to refine the computational models before their analysis via finite element simulations. The linear elastic region of the load-displacement curves was further analyzed numerically via finite element models. Predictions with finite element models resulted in good agreement with errors below 10%. Samples with diagonal rasters were 70% softer than those parallel to the principal axes.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Luis Pérez-Castillo
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Epigmenio González 500 Fracc, San Pablo, Querétaro 76130, Mexico
| | - Angel Mora
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, Institute of Advanced Materials for Sustainable Manufacturing, Av. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, Monterrey 64849, Mexico
| | - Rogelio Perez-Santiago
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Epigmenio González 500 Fracc, San Pablo, Querétaro 76130, Mexico
| | - Armando Roman-Flores
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, Institute of Advanced Materials for Sustainable Manufacturing, Av. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, Monterrey 64849, Mexico
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, General Ramon Corona 2514, Zapopan 45138, Mexico
| | - Rafiq Ahmad
- Smart & Sustainable Manufacturing Systems Laboratory (SMART LAB), Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Enrique Cuan-Urquizo
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Epigmenio González 500 Fracc, San Pablo, Querétaro 76130, Mexico
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, Institute of Advanced Materials for Sustainable Manufacturing, Av. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, Monterrey 64849, Mexico
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Effect of Post-Printing Cooling Conditions on the Properties of ULTEM Printed Parts. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15020324. [PMID: 36679206 PMCID: PMC9862685 DOI: 10.3390/polym15020324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper aimed to estimate the effect of post-printing cooling conditions on the tensile and thermophysical properties of ULTEM® 9085 printed parts processed by fused deposition modeling (FDM). Three different cooling conditions were applied after printing Ultem samples: from 180 °C to room temperature (RT) for 4 h in the printer (P), rapid removal from the printer and cooling from 200 °C to RT for 4 h in the oven (O), and cooling at RT (R). Tensile tests and dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) were carried out on samples printed in three orthogonal planes to investigate the effect of the post-printing cooling conditions on their mechanical and thermophysical properties. Optical microscopy was employed to relate the corresponding macrostructure to the mechanical performance of the material. The results obtained showed almost no difference between samples cooled either in the printer or oven and a notable difference for samples cooled at room temperature. Moreover, the lowest mechanical performance and sensitivity to the thermal cooling conditions were defined for the Z printing direction due to anisotropic nature of FDM and debonding among layers.
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Development and Mechanical Characterization of Short Curauá Fiber-Reinforced PLA Composites Made via Fused Deposition Modeling. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14225047. [PMID: 36433175 PMCID: PMC9698043 DOI: 10.3390/polym14225047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The increase in the use of additive manufacturing (AM) has led to the need for filaments with specific and functional properties in face of requirements of structural parts production. The use of eco-friendly reinforcements (i.e., natural fibers) as an alternative to those more traditional synthetic counterparts is still scarce and requires further investigation. The main objective of this work was to develop short curauá fiber-reinforced polylactic acid (PLA) composites made via fused deposition modeling. Three different fiber lengths (3, 6, and 8 mm), and three concentrations in terms of weight percentage (2, 3.5, and 5 wt.%) were used to fabricate reinforced PLA filaments. Tensile and flexural tests in accordance with their respective American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards were performed. A thermal analysis was also carried out in order to investigate the thermal stability of the new materials. It was found that the main driving factor for the variation in mechanical properties was the fiber weight fraction. The increase in fiber length did not provide any significant benefit on the mechanical properties of the curauá fiber-reinforced PLA composite printed parts. The composites produced with PLA filaments reinforced by 3 mm 2% curauá fiber presented the overall best mechanical and thermal properties of all studied groups. The curauá fiber-reinforced PLA composites made via fused deposition modeling may be a promising innovation to improve the performance of these materials, which might enable them to serve for new applications.
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Filament Transport Control for Enhancing Mechanical Properties of Parts Realised by Fused Filament Fabrication. MATERIALS 2022; 15:ma15103530. [PMID: 35629557 PMCID: PMC9145558 DOI: 10.3390/ma15103530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
The fused filament fabrication (FFF) process is widely used for producing prototypes and functional parts for diverse applications. While FFF is particularly attractive due to its cost-effectiveness, on the other hand, the fabricated parts have limitations in terms of large manufacturing time and reduced mechanical properties. The latter is strongly influenced by the fabrication process parameters, which affect the interlayer bonding and the adhesion between consecutive layers. Several works presented in the literature analysed the correlation between mechanical properties and process parameters. It was demonstrated that an increase in the fabrication feed rate causes slippage between filament and the feeding system, which leads to a decrease in the extruded material flow, and thus in part density. This work aims to investigate how the limitation of the slippage phenomenon affects the mechanical properties of parts fabricated using the FFF process. A prototype machine, equipped with a closed-loop control system on filament transport, was used to fabricate samples for tensile tests and dynamical mechanical analysis. Samples fabricated enabling the filament transport control showed an increase both in ultimate tensile strength and elongation at break for those fabricated with disabled control, whilst a decrease in stiffness was observed. In addition, the results showed that the use of a filament transport control system on a FFF machine increases the possibility of fabricating high value-added parts.
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Harris M, Mohsin H, Potgieter J, Ishfaq K, Archer R, Chen Q, De Silva K, Guen MJL, Wilson R, Arif KM. Partial Biodegradable Blend with High Stability against Biodegradation for Fused Deposition Modeling. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14081541. [PMID: 35458292 PMCID: PMC9027655 DOI: 10.3390/polym14081541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2022] [Revised: 04/02/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
This research presents a partial biodegradable polymeric blend aimed for large-scale fused deposition modeling (FDM). The literature reports partial biodegradable blends with high contents of fossil fuel-based polymers (>20%) that make them unfriendly to the ecosystem. Furthermore, the reported polymer systems neither present good mechanical strength nor have been investigated in vulnerable environments that results in biodegradation. This research, as a continuity of previous work, presents the stability against biodegradability of a partial biodegradable blend prepared with polylactic acid (PLA) and polypropylene (PP). The blend is designed with intended excess physical interlocking and sufficient chemical grafting, which has only been investigated for thermal and hydrolytic degradation before by the same authors. The research presents, for the first time, ANOVA analysis for the statistical evaluation of endurance against biodegradability. The statistical results are complemented with thermochemical and visual analysis. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) determines the signs of intermolecular interactions that are further confirmed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The thermochemical interactions observed in FTIR and DSC are validated with thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is also used as a visual technique to affirm the physical interlocking. It is concluded that the blend exhibits high stability against soil biodegradation in terms of high mechanical strength and high mass retention percentage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Harris
- Massey Agrifood Digital Lab, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand; (J.P.); (R.W.)
- Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering Department, Rachna College of Engineering and Technology, Gujranwala 52250, Pakistan
- Correspondence:
| | - Hammad Mohsin
- Department of Polymer Engineering, National Textile University, Faisalabad 37610, Pakistan;
| | - Johan Potgieter
- Massey Agrifood Digital Lab, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand; (J.P.); (R.W.)
| | - Kashif Ishfaq
- Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering Department, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore 54890, Pakistan;
| | - Richard Archer
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand; (R.A.); (Q.C.)
| | - Qun Chen
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand; (R.A.); (Q.C.)
| | - Karnika De Silva
- Faculty of Engineering, University of Auckland, Auckland 1023, New Zealand;
| | | | - Russell Wilson
- Massey Agrifood Digital Lab, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand; (J.P.); (R.W.)
| | - Khalid Mahmood Arif
- Department of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, SF&AT, Massey University, Auckland 0632, New Zealand;
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Harris M, Mohsin H, Naveed R, Potgieter J, Ishfaq K, Ray S, Guen MJL, Archer R, Arif KM. Partial Biodegradable Blend for Fused Filament Fabrication: In-Process Thermal and Post-Printing Moisture Resistance. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14081527. [PMID: 35458281 PMCID: PMC9025397 DOI: 10.3390/polym14081527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Revised: 04/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the extensive research, the moisture-based degradation of the 3D-printed polypropylene and polylactic acid blend is not yet reported. This research is a part of study reported on partial biodegradable blends proposed for large-scale additive manufacturing applications. However, the previous work does not provide information about the stability of the proposed blend system against moisture-based degradation. Therefore, this research presents a combination of excessive physical interlocking and minimum chemical grafting in a partial biodegradable blend to achieve stability against in-process thermal and moisture-based degradation. In this regard, a blend of polylactic acid and polypropylene compatibilized with polyethylene graft maleic anhydride is presented for fused filament fabrication. The research implements, for the first time, an ANOVA for combined thermal and moisture-based degradation. The results are explained using thermochemical and microscopic techniques. Scanning electron microscopy is used for analyzing the printed blend. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy has allowed studying the intermolecular interactions due to the partial blending and degradation mechanism. Differential scanning calorimetry analyzes the blending (physical interlocking or chemical grafting) and thermochemical effects of the degradation mechanism. The thermogravimetric analysis further validates the physical interlocking and chemical grafting. The novel concept of partial blending with excessive interlocking reports high mechanical stability against moisture-based degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Harris
- Massey Agrifood Digital Lab, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand;
- Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering Department, Rachna College of Engineering and Technology, Gujranwala 52250, Pakistan
- Correspondence: or engr.harris@.uet.edu.pk
| | - Hammad Mohsin
- Department of Polymer Engineering, National Textile University, Faisalabad 37610, Pakistan;
| | - Rakhshanda Naveed
- Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering Department, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore 54890, Pakistan; (R.N.); (K.I.)
| | - Johan Potgieter
- Massey Agrifood Digital Lab, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand;
| | - Kashif Ishfaq
- Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering Department, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore 54890, Pakistan; (R.N.); (K.I.)
| | - Sudip Ray
- New Zealand Institute for Minerals to Materials Research, Greymouth 7805, New Zealand;
| | | | - Richard Archer
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand;
| | - Khalid Mahmood Arif
- Department of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, SF&AT, Massey University, Auckland 0632, New Zealand;
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Nofar M, Utz J, Geis N, Altstädt V, Ruckdäschel H. Foam 3D Printing of Thermoplastics: A Symbiosis of Additive Manufacturing and Foaming Technology. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2105701. [PMID: 35187843 PMCID: PMC9008799 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202105701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Due to their light-weight and cost-effectiveness, cellular thermoplastic foams are considered as important engineering materials. On the other hand, additive manufacturing or 3D printing is one of the emerging and fastest growing manufacturing technologies due to its advantages such as design freedom and tool-less production. Nowadays, 3D printing of polymer compounds is mostly limited to manufacturing of solid parts. In this context, a merged foaming and printing technology can introduce a great alternative for the currently used foam manufacturing technologies such as foam injection molding. This perspective review article tackles the attempts taken toward initiating this novel technology to simultaneously foam and print thermoplastics. After explaining the basics of polymer foaming and additive manufacturing, this article classifies different attempts that have been made toward generating foamed printed structures while highlighting their challenges. These attempts are clustered into 1) architected porous structures, 2) syntactic foaming, 3) post-foaming of printed parts, and eventually 4) printing of blowing agents saturated filaments. Among these, the latest approach is the most practical route although it has not been thoroughly studied yet. A filament free approach that can be introduced as a potential strategy to unlock the difficulties to produce printed foam structures is also proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammadreza Nofar
- Sustainable and Green Plastics LaboratoryMetallurgical and Materials Engineering DepartmentFaculty of Chemical and Metallurgical EngineeringIstanbul Technical UniversityIstanbul34469Turkey
- Polymer Science and Technology ProgramIstanbul Technical UniversityMaslakIstanbul34469Turkey
| | - Julia Utz
- Department of Polymer EngineeringUniversity of BayreuthBayreuth95447Germany
| | - Nico Geis
- Department of Polymer EngineeringUniversity of BayreuthBayreuth95447Germany
| | - Volker Altstädt
- Department of Polymer EngineeringUniversity of BayreuthBayreuth95447Germany
- Bavarian Polymer Institute and Bayreuth Institute of Macromolecular ResearchUniversity of BayreuthBayreuth95447Germany
| | - Holger Ruckdäschel
- Department of Polymer EngineeringUniversity of BayreuthBayreuth95447Germany
- Bavarian Polymer Institute and Bayreuth Institute of Macromolecular ResearchUniversity of BayreuthBayreuth95447Germany
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13
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Alumina Manufactured by Fused Filament Fabrication: A Comprehensive Study of Mechanical Properties and Porosity. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14050991. [PMID: 35267814 PMCID: PMC8912858 DOI: 10.3390/polym14050991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This article deals with a comprehensive study of the processing and mechanical properties of the ceramic material Al2O3 on Fused Filament Fabrication technology (FFF). It describes the basic input analyses of the material, such as TGA, FTIR, and MVR. These analyses enabled the design and testing of process parameters for the 3D printing of parts. The article also presents the post-processes, including the technological parameters required to finalize parts made from this material, i.e., chemical debinding in acetone at elevated temperatures + thermal debinding and sintering. The microhardness was measured on the processed samples, depending on the density of the inner filling. The resulting hardness had an almost linear relationship between the percentage of filler (20–40–60–80–100%) and the resulting microhardness (1382–2428 HV10). Flexural strength was also measured on the test specimens with different degrees of internal filling (80–90–100%). However, inner filling do not affect the flexural strength (316.12–327.84–331.61 MPa). The relative density of the final parts was measured on a ZEISS METROTOM 1500 CT machine and reached 99.54%.
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14
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Cojocaru V, Frunzaverde D, Miclosina CO, Marginean G. The Influence of the Process Parameters on the Mechanical Properties of PLA Specimens Produced by Fused Filament Fabrication-A Review. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14050886. [PMID: 35267709 PMCID: PMC8912674 DOI: 10.3390/polym14050886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Polylactic acid (PLA) is produced from renewable materials, has a low melting temperature and has a low carbon footprint. These advantages have led to the extensive use of polylactic acid in additive manufacturing, particularly by fused filament fabrication (FFF). PLA parts that are 3D printed for industrial applications require stable mechanical properties and predictability regarding their dependence on the process parameters. Therefore, the development of the FFF process has been continuously accompanied by the development of software packages that generate CNC codes for the printers. A large number of user-controllable process parameters have been introduced in these software packages. In this respect, a lot of articles in the specialized literature address the issue of the influence of the process parameters on the mechanical properties of 3D-printed specimens. A systematic review of the research targeting the influence of process parameters on the mechanical properties of PLA specimens additively manufactured by fused filament fabrication was carried out by the authors of this paper. Six process parameters (layer thickness, printing speed, printing temperature, build plate temperature, build orientation and raster angle) were followed. The mechanical behavior was evaluated by tensile, compressive and bending properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasile Cojocaru
- Department of Engineering Science, Babeș-Bolyai University, P-ța Traian Vuia, Nr. 1-4, 320085 Resita, Romania; (V.C.); (C.-O.M.)
| | - Doina Frunzaverde
- Department of Engineering Science, Babeș-Bolyai University, P-ța Traian Vuia, Nr. 1-4, 320085 Resita, Romania; (V.C.); (C.-O.M.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Calin-Octavian Miclosina
- Department of Engineering Science, Babeș-Bolyai University, P-ța Traian Vuia, Nr. 1-4, 320085 Resita, Romania; (V.C.); (C.-O.M.)
| | - Gabriela Marginean
- Department of Materials Science and Testing, Westphalian University of Applied Sciences Gelsenkirchen Bocholt Recklinghausen, Neidenburgerstr. 43, 45897 Gelsenkirchen, Germany;
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Saniman MNF, Dzulkifli NA, Wahid KAA, Muhamad WMW, Mohamad KA, Alias EA, Shariff JM. Water Retention Properties of a Fused Deposition Modeling Based 3D Printed Polylactic Acid Vessel. ADVANCED MARITIME TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS 2022:311-323. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-89992-9_27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
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16
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Effects of In-Process Temperatures and Blending Polymers on Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Blends. INVENTIONS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/inventions6040093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is a renowned commodity polymer for additive manufacturing, particularly fused deposition modelling (FDM). The recent large-scale applications of 3D-printed ABS require stable mechanical properties than ever needed. However, thermochemical scission of butadiene bonds is one of the contemporary challenges affecting the overall ABS stability. In this regard, literature reports melt-blending of ABS with different polymers with high thermal resistance. However, the comparison for the effects of different polymers on tensile strength of 3D-printed ABS blends was not yet reported. Furthermore, the cumulative studies comprising both blended polymers and in-process thermal variables for FDM were not yet presented as well. This research, for the first time, presents the statistical comparison of tensile properties for the added polymers and in-process thermal variables (printing temperature and build surface temperature). The research presents Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) to explain the thermochemical reasons behind achieved mechanical properties. Overall, ABS blend with PP shows high tensile strength (≈31 MPa) at different combinations of in-process parameters. Furthermore, some commonalities among both blends are noted, i.e., the tensile strength improves with increase of surface (bed) and printing temperature.
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17
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Mandala R, Bannoth AP, Akella S, Rangari VK, Kodali D. A short review on fused deposition modeling
3D
printing of bio‐based polymer nanocomposites. J Appl Polym Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/app.51904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Radhika Mandala
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Vignan Institute of Technology & Science Deshmukhi Hyderabad India
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad India
| | - Anjaneya Prasad Bannoth
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Hyderabad India
| | - Suresh Akella
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Sreyas Institute of Engineering and Technology Hyderabad India
| | - Vijaya K. Rangari
- Department of Materials Science Engineering Tuskegee University Tuskegee USA
| | - Deepa Kodali
- Department of Materials Science Engineering Tuskegee University Tuskegee USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Christian Brothers University Memphis USA
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18
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Harris M, Potgieter J, Mohsin H, Chen JQ, Ray S, Arif KM. Partial Polymer Blend for Fused Filament Fabrication with High Thermal Stability. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13193353. [PMID: 34641168 PMCID: PMC8512697 DOI: 10.3390/polym13193353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The materials for large scale fused filament fabrication (FFF) are not yet designed to resist thermal degradation. This research presents a novel polymer blend of polylactic acid with polypropylene for FFF, purposefully designed with minimum feasible chemical grafting and overwhelming physical interlocking to sustain thermal degradation. Multi-level general full factorial ANOVA is performed for the analysis of thermal effects. The statistical results are further investigated and validated using different thermo-chemical and visual techniques. For example, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analyzes the effects of blending and degradation on intermolecular interactions. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) investigates the nature of blending (grafting or interlocking) and effects of degradation on thermal properties. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) validates the extent of chemical grafting and physical interlocking detected in FTIR and DSC. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is used to analyze the morphology and phase separation. The novel approach of overwhelmed physical interlocking and minimum chemical grafting for manufacturing 3D printing blends results in high structural stability (mechanical and intermolecular) against thermal degradation as compared to neat PLA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Harris
- Massey Agrifood Digital Lab, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand;
- Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering Department, Rachna College of Engineering and Technology, Gujranwala 52250, Pakistan
- Correspondence:
| | - Johan Potgieter
- Massey Agrifood Digital Lab, Massey University, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand;
| | - Hammad Mohsin
- Department of Polymer Engineering, National Textile University, Faisalabad 37610, Pakistan;
| | - Jim Qun Chen
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
| | - Sudip Ray
- New Zealand Institute for Minerals to Materials Research, Greymouth 7805, New Zealand;
| | - Khalid Mahmood Arif
- Department of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, SF&AT, Massey University, Auckland 0632, New Zealand;
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19
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Wang S, He H, Peng X, Chen H. Study on performances of graphite‐filled polypropylene/polyamide 6 composites manufactured by fused deposition modeling. J Appl Polym Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/app.50751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shuzhan Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering South China University of Technology Guangzhou Guangdong China
| | - Hui He
- School of Materials Science and Engineering South China University of Technology Guangzhou Guangdong China
| | - Xiaodong Peng
- School of Materials Science and Engineering South China University of Technology Guangzhou Guangdong China
| | - Handong Chen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering South China University of Technology Guangzhou Guangdong China
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20
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Dobrotă D, Lazăr SV. Redesign of the Geometry of Parts Produced from PBT Composite to Improve Their Operational Behavior. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13152536. [PMID: 34372146 PMCID: PMC8348945 DOI: 10.3390/polym13152536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Parts produced from PBT-GF30 (70% polybutylene terephthalate +30% fiberglass) are very often used in car construction, due to the properties of this material. The current trend is to make parts with a shape designed to be as complex as possible, to take over many functions in operation. During the research, a part that is a component of the structure of car safety systems, and that must be completely reliable in operation, was analyzed. This piece has a complex shape that involves the intersection of several walls. Thus, the research aimed at establishing the optimal radius of connection between the walls (R), the ratio between the thickness of the intersecting walls (K) and the angle of inclination of the walls (α). The composite central design method was used to design the experiments. Both new parts and parts subject to an artificial aging process were tested. All parts were subjected to shear stress, to determine the load (L) and displacement (D) at which they break. In order to observe other changes in the properties of the parts, in addition to the mechanical ones, an analysis of the color of the new and aged parts was performed, as well as a topography of the surface layer in the breaking area. The design of the parts involved changes to the parameters of the injection process. In these conditions, a PBT-GF30 viscosity analysis was performed for new and artificially aged parts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Dobrotă
- Faculty of Engineering, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, 550024 Sibiu, Romania
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +40-0722-446-082
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21
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22
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Interlayer Adhesion Analysis of 3D-Printed Continuous Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Composites. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13101653. [PMID: 34069620 PMCID: PMC8160704 DOI: 10.3390/polym13101653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Carbon fibre-reinforced materials are becoming more and more popular in various fields of industries because of their lightweight and perfect mechanical properties. Additive manufacturing technologies can be used for the production of complex parts from various materials including composites. Fused deposition modelling (FDM) is an excellent technology for the production of composite structures reinforced with short or continuous carbon fibre. In this study, modified FDM technology was used for the production of composites reinforced with continuous carbon fibre. The main aim of this study is to evaluate the shear strength of 3D-printed composite structures. The influence of printing layer height and line width on shear strength was analysed. Results showed that layer height has a significant influence on shear strength, while the influence of printing line width on shear strength is slightly smaller. Reduction of layer height from 0.4 mm to 0.3 mm allows increasing shear strength by about 40 percent. Moreover, the influence of the shear area and overlap length on shear force showed linear dependency, in which the shear area is increasing the shear force increasing proportionally. Finally, the results obtained can be used for the design and development of new 3D-printed composite structures.
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23
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Brauner C, Küng M, Arslan D, Maurer C. Fused Filament Fabrication Based on Polyhydroxy Ether (Phenoxy) Polymers and Related Properties. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:1549. [PMID: 34066013 PMCID: PMC8151243 DOI: 10.3390/polym13101549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper describes the first-time application of polyhydroxy ether polymers, so-called phenoxy, to fused filament fabrication (FFF). Phenoxy is an amorphous thermoplastic polymer that is based on the same building blocks as epoxide resins. This similarity creates some unique properties such as dissolution to epoxide systems, which is why phenoxy is used as an additive for toughening. In this study, the processing parameters were characterized, a filament was extruded and applied to FFF printing, and the final mechanical characteristics were determined. The study concludes with a comparison with other standard FFF materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Brauner
- Institute of Polymer Engineering, FHNW University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Klosterzelgstrasse 2, 5210 Windisch, Switzerland; (M.K.); (D.A.); (C.M.)
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24
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Guo H, Zhao H, Niu H, Ren Y, Fang H, Fang X, Lv R, Maqbool M, Bai S. Highly Thermally Conductive 3D Printed Graphene Filled Polymer Composites for Scalable Thermal Management Applications. ACS NANO 2021; 15:6917-6928. [PMID: 33856782 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c10768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Efficient thermal transportation in a preferred direction is highly favorable for thermal management issues. The combination of 3D printing and two-dimensional (2D) materials such as graphene, BN, and so on enables infinite possibilities for hierarchically aligned structure programming. In this work, we report the formation of the asymmetrically aligned structure of graphene filled thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) composites during 3D printing process. The as-printed vertically aligned structure demonstrates a through-plane thermal conductivity (TC) up to 12 W m-1 K-1 at 45 wt % graphene content, which is ∼8 times of that of a horizontally printed structure and surpasses many of the traditional particle reinforced polymer composites. The superior TC is mainly attributed to the anisotropic structure design that benefited from the preferable degree of orientation of graphene and the multiscale dense structure realized by finely controlling the printing parameters. Finite element method (FEM) confirms the essential impact of anisotropic TC design for highly thermal conductive composites. This study provides an effective way to develop 3D printed graphene-based polymer composites for scalable thermal-related applications such as battery thermal management, electric packaging, and so on.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haichang Guo
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, CAPT/HEDPS/LTCS, Key Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and Physics of Ministry of Education, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Haoyuan Zhao
- National Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory, Anhui Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Advanced Functional Polymer Film, CAS Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
| | - Hongyu Niu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, CAPT/HEDPS/LTCS, Key Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and Physics of Ministry of Education, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yanjuan Ren
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, CAPT/HEDPS/LTCS, Key Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and Physics of Ministry of Education, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Haoming Fang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, CAPT/HEDPS/LTCS, Key Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and Physics of Ministry of Education, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Xingxing Fang
- Department of Spine Surgery, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Ruicong Lv
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, CAPT/HEDPS/LTCS, Key Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and Physics of Ministry of Education, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Muhammad Maqbool
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, CAPT/HEDPS/LTCS, Key Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and Physics of Ministry of Education, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Shulin Bai
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, CAPT/HEDPS/LTCS, Key Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and Physics of Ministry of Education, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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25
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Harpool TD, Alarifi IM, Alshammari BA, Aabid A, Baig M, Malik RA, Mohamed Sayed A, Asmatulu R, EL-Bagory TMAA. Evaluation of the Infill Design on the Tensile Response of 3D Printed Polylactic Acid Polymer. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14092195. [PMID: 33922889 PMCID: PMC8123144 DOI: 10.3390/ma14092195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The current study explores the effects of geometrical shapes of the infills on the 3D printed polylactic acid (PLA) plastic on the tensile properties. For this purpose, by utilizing an accessible supply desktop printer, specimens of diamond, rectangular, and hexagonal infill patterns were produced using the fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3D printing technique. Additionally, solid samples were printed for comparison. The printed tensile test specimens were conducted at environmental temperature, Ta of 23 °C and crosshead speed, VC.H of 5 mm/min. Mainly, this study focuses on investigating the percentage infill with respect to the cross-sectional area of the investigated samples. The mechanical properties, i.e., modulus of toughness, ultimate tensile stress, yield stress, and percent elongation, were explored for each sample having a different geometrical infill design. The test outcomes for each pattern were systematically compared. To further validate the experimental results, a computer simulation using finite element analysis was also performed and contrasted with the experimental tensile tests. The experimental results mainly suggested a brittle behavior for solidly infilled specimen, while rectangular, diamond, and hexagonal infill patterns showed ductile-like behavior (fine size and texture of infills). This brittleness may be due to the relatively higher infill density results that led to the high bonding adhesion of the printed layers, and the size and thickness effects of the solid substrate. It made the solidly infilled specimen structure denser and brittle. Among all structures, hexagon geometrical infill showed relative improvement in the mechanical properties (highest ultimate tensile stress and modulus values 1759.4 MPa and 57.74 MPa, respectively) compared with other geometrical infills. Therefore, the geometrical infill effects play an important role in selecting the suitable mechanical property's values in industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanner David Harpool
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Wichita State University, 1845 Fairmount, Wichita, KS 67260, USA;
| | - Ibrahim Mohammed Alarifi
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering, Majmaah University, Al-Majmaah, Riyadh 11952, Saudi Arabia; (I.M.A.); (T.M.A.A.E.-B.)
- Engineering and Applied Science Research Center, Majmaah University, Al-Majmaah, Riyadh 11952, Saudi Arabia
| | - Basheer A. Alshammari
- Materials Science Research Institute, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh 11442, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Abdul Aabid
- Engineering Management Department, College of Engineering, Prince Sultan University, P.O. Box 66833, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia; (A.A.); (M.B.)
| | - Muneer Baig
- Engineering Management Department, College of Engineering, Prince Sultan University, P.O. Box 66833, Riyadh 11586, Saudi Arabia; (A.A.); (M.B.)
| | - Rizwan Ahmed Malik
- Department of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Taxila 47050, Pakistan;
| | - Ahmed Mohamed Sayed
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Majmaah University, Majmaah 11952, Saudi Arabia;
- Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Assiut University, Assiut 71518, Egypt
| | - Ramazan Asmatulu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Wichita State University, 1845 Fairmount, Wichita, KS 67260, USA;
- Correspondence:
| | - Tarek Mohamed Ahmed Ali EL-Bagory
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering, Majmaah University, Al-Majmaah, Riyadh 11952, Saudi Arabia; (I.M.A.); (T.M.A.A.E.-B.)
- Department of Mechanical Design, Faculty of Engineering Materia, Helwan University, Cairo 11724, Egypt
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26
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Guerra Silva R, Salinas Estay C, Morales Pavez G, Zahr Viñuela J, Torres MJ. Influence of Geometric and Manufacturing Parameters on the Compressive Behavior of 3D Printed Polymer Lattice Structures. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 14:1462. [PMID: 33802697 PMCID: PMC8002545 DOI: 10.3390/ma14061462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Fused deposition modeling represents a flexible and relatively inexpensive alternative for the production of custom-made polymer lattices. However, its limited accuracy and resolution lead to geometric irregularities and poor mechanical properties when compared with the digital design. Although the link between geometric features and mechanical properties of lattices has been studied extensively, the role of manufacturing parameters has received little attention. Additionally, as the size of cells/struts nears the accuracy limit of the manufacturing process, the interaction between geometry and manufacturing parameters could be decisive. Hence, the influence of three geometric and two manufacturing parameters on the mechanical behavior was evaluated using a fractional factorial design of experiments. The compressive behavior of two miniature lattice structures, the truncated octahedron and cubic diamond, was evaluated, and multilinear regression models for the elastic modulus and plateau stress were developed. Cell size, unit cell type, and strut diameter had the largest impact on the mechanical properties, while the influence of feedstock material and layer thickness was very limited. Models based on factorial design, although limited in scope, could be an effective tool for the design of customized lattice structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Guerra Silva
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Quilpué 2430000, Chile; (C.S.E.); (G.M.P.); (J.Z.V.); (M.J.T.)
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Fused Filament Fabrication of Polymers and Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites: Advances in Structure Optimization and Health Monitoring. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13050789. [PMID: 33806621 PMCID: PMC7961789 DOI: 10.3390/polym13050789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Revised: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
3D printed neat thermoplastic polymers (TPs) and continuous fiber-reinforced thermoplastic composites (CFRTPCs) by fused filament fabrication (FFF) are becoming attractive materials for numerous applications. However, the structure of these materials exhibits interfaces at different scales, engendering non-optimal mechanical properties. The first part of the review presents a description of these interfaces and highlights the different strategies to improve interfacial bonding. The actual knowledge on the structural aspects of the thermoplastic matrix is also summarized in this contribution with a focus on crystallization and orientation. The research to be tackled to further improve the structural properties of the 3D printed materials is identified. The second part of the review provides an overview of structural health monitoring technologies relying on the use of fiber Bragg grating sensors, strain gauge sensors and self-sensing. After a brief discussion on these three technologies, the needed research to further stimulate the development of FFF is identified. Finally, in the third part of this contribution the technology landscape of FFF processes for CFRTPCs is provided, including the future trends.
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Khorsandi D, Fahimipour A, Abasian P, Saber SS, Seyedi M, Ghanavati S, Ahmad A, De Stephanis AA, Taghavinezhaddilami F, Leonova A, Mohammadinejad R, Shabani M, Mazzolai B, Mattoli V, Tay FR, Makvandi P. 3D and 4D printing in dentistry and maxillofacial surgery: Printing techniques, materials, and applications. Acta Biomater 2021; 122:26-49. [PMID: 33359299 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2020.12.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
3D and 4D printing are cutting-edge technologies for precise and expedited manufacturing of objects ranging from plastic to metal. Recent advances in 3D and 4D printing technologies in dentistry and maxillofacial surgery enable dentists to custom design and print surgical drill guides, temporary and permanent crowns and bridges, orthodontic appliances and orthotics, implants, mouthguards for drug delivery. In the present review, different 3D printing technologies available for use in dentistry are highlighted together with a critique on the materials available for printing. Recent reports of the application of these printed platformed are highlighted to enable readers appreciate the progress in 3D/4D printing in dentistry.
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Saleh Alghamdi S, John S, Roy Choudhury N, Dutta NK. Additive Manufacturing of Polymer Materials: Progress, Promise and Challenges. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:753. [PMID: 33670934 PMCID: PMC7957542 DOI: 10.3390/polym13050753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of additive manufacturing (AM) has moved well beyond prototyping and has been established as a highly versatile manufacturing method with demonstrated potential to completely transform traditional manufacturing in the future. In this paper, a comprehensive review and critical analyses of the recent advances and achievements in the field of different AM processes for polymers, their composites and nanocomposites, elastomers and multi materials, shape memory polymers and thermo-responsive materials are presented. Moreover, their applications in different fields such as bio-medical, electronics, textiles, and aerospace industries are also discussed. We conclude the article with an account of further research needs and future perspectives of AM process with polymeric materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saad Saleh Alghamdi
- School of Engineering, Chemical and Environmental Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne 3000, Australia
| | - Sabu John
- School of Engineering, Manufacturing, Materials and Mechatronics, RMIT University, Bundoora 3083, Australia
| | - Namita Roy Choudhury
- School of Engineering, Chemical and Environmental Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne 3000, Australia
| | - Naba K Dutta
- School of Engineering, Chemical and Environmental Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne 3000, Australia
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The Effect of a Phase Change on the Temperature Evolution during the Deposition Stage in Fused Filament Fabrication. COMPUTERS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/computers10020019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Additive Manufacturing Techniques such as Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) produce 3D parts with complex geometries directly from a computer model without the need of using molds and tools, by gradually depositing material(s), usually in layers. Due to the rapid growth of these techniques, researchers have been increasingly interested in the availability of strategies, models or data that may assist process optimization. In fact, 3D printed parts often exhibit limited mechanical performance, which is usually the result of poor bonding between adjacent filaments. In turn, the latter is influenced by the temperature field history during deposition. This study aims at evaluating the influence of the phase change from the melt to the solid state undergone by semi-crystalline polymers such as Polylactic Acid (PLA), on the heat transfer during the deposition stage. The energy equation considering solidification is solved analytically and then inserted into a MatLab® code to model cooling in FFF. The deposition and cooling of simple geometries is studied first, in order to assess the differences in cooling of amorphous and semi-crystalline polymers. Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) was taken as representing an amorphous material. Then, the deposition and cooling of a realistic 3D part is investigated, and the influence of the build orientation is discussed.
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Vidakis N, Petousis M, Tzounis L, Maniadi A, Velidakis E, Mountakis N, Kechagias JD. Sustainable Additive Manufacturing: Mechanical Response of Polyamide 12 over Multiple Recycling Processes. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 14:466. [PMID: 33478083 PMCID: PMC7835918 DOI: 10.3390/ma14020466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Plastic waste reduction and recycling through circular use has been critical nowadays, since there is an increasing demand for the production of plastic components based on different polymeric matrices in various applications. The most commonly used recycling procedure, especially for thermoplastic materials, is based on thermomechanical process protocols that could significantly alter the polymers' macromolecular structure and physicochemical properties. The study at hand focuses on recycling of polyamide 12 (PA12) filament, through extrusion melting over multiple recycling courses, giving insight for its effect on the mechanical and thermal properties of Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) manufactured specimens throughout the recycling courses. Three-dimensional (3D) FFF printed specimens were produced from virgin as well as recycled PA12 filament, while they have been experimentally tested further for their tensile, flexural, impact and micro-hardness mechanical properties. A thorough thermal and morphological analysis was also performed on all the 3D printed samples. The results of this study demonstrate that PA12 can be successfully recycled for a certain number of courses and could be utilized in 3D printing, while exhibiting improved mechanical properties when compared to virgin material for a certain number of recycling repetitions. From this work, it can be deduced that PA12 can be a viable option for circular use and 3D printing, offering an overall positive impact on recycling, while realizing 3D printed components using recycled filaments with enhanced mechanical and thermal stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nectarios Vidakis
- Mechanical Engineering Department, Hellenic Mediterranean University, 71410 Heraklion, Crete, Greece; (N.V.); (E.V.); (N.M.)
| | - Markos Petousis
- Mechanical Engineering Department, Hellenic Mediterranean University, 71410 Heraklion, Crete, Greece; (N.V.); (E.V.); (N.M.)
| | - Lazaros Tzounis
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Ioannina, 45110 Ioannina, Greece;
| | - Athena Maniadi
- Department of Materials Science and Technology, University of Crete, 70013 Heraklion, Crete, Greece;
| | - Emmanouil Velidakis
- Mechanical Engineering Department, Hellenic Mediterranean University, 71410 Heraklion, Crete, Greece; (N.V.); (E.V.); (N.M.)
| | - Nikolaos Mountakis
- Mechanical Engineering Department, Hellenic Mediterranean University, 71410 Heraklion, Crete, Greece; (N.V.); (E.V.); (N.M.)
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Abstract
Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is a biodegradable polymer material used for the fabrication of objects by fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3D printing. FFF 3D printing technology has been quickly spreading over the past few years. An FFF-3D-printed object is formed from melted polymer extruded from a nozzle layer-by-layer. The mechanical properties of the object, and the changes in those properties as the object degrades, differ from the properties and changes observed in bulk objects. In this study we evaluated FFF-3D-printed objects by uniaxial tensile tests and four-point flexural tests to characterize the changes of three mechanical properties, namely, the maximum stress, elastic modulus, and breaking energy. Eight types of test pieces printed directly by an FFF 3D printer using two scan patterns and two interior fill percentages (IFPs) were tested by the aforesaid methods. The test pieces were immersed in saline and kept in an incubator at 37 °C for 30, 60, or 90 days before the mechanical testing. The changes in the mechanical properties differed largely between the test piece types. In some of the test pieces, transient increases in strength were observed before the immersion degraded the strength. Several of the test piece types were found to have superior specific strength in the tests. The results obtained in this research will be helpful for the design of PLA structures fabricated by FFF 3D printing.
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33
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Functional 3D printing: Approaches and bioapplications. Biosens Bioelectron 2020; 175:112849. [PMID: 33250333 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2020.112849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
3D printing technology has become a mature manufacturing technique, widely used for its advantages over the traditional methods, such as the end-user customization and rapid prototyping, useful in different application fields, including the biomedical one. Indeed, it represents a helpful tool for the realization of biodevices (i.e. biosensors, microfluidic bioreactors, drug delivery systems and Lab-On-Chip). In this perspective, the development of 3D printable materials with intrinsic functionalities, through the so-called 4D printing, introduces novel opportunities for the fabrication of "smart" or stimuli-responsive devices. Indeed, functional 3D printable materials can modify their surfaces, structures, properties or even shape in response to specific stimuli (such as pressure, temperature or light radiation), adding to the printed object new interesting properties exploited after the fabrication process. In this context, by combining 3D printing technology with an accurate materials' design, functional 3D objects with built-in (bio)chemical functionalities, having biorecognition, biocatalytic and drug delivery capabilities are here reported.
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The Mechanical Properties of Fiber Metal Laminates Based on 3D Printed Composites. MATERIALS 2020; 13:ma13225264. [PMID: 33233351 PMCID: PMC7700548 DOI: 10.3390/ma13225264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The production and mechanical properties of fiber metal laminates (FMLs) based on 3D printed composites have been investigated in this study. FMLs are structures constituting an alternating arrangement of metal and composite materials that are used in the aerospace sector due to their unique mechanical performance. 3D printing technology in FMLs could allow the production of structures with customized configuration and performance. A series of continuous carbon fiber reinforced composites were printed on a Markforged system and placed between layers of aluminum alloy to manufacture a novel breed of FMLs in this study. These laminates were subjected to tensile, low velocity and high velocity impact tests. The results show that the tensile strength of the FMLs falls between the strength of their constituent materials, while the low and high velocity impact performance of the FMLs is superior to those observed for the plain aluminum and the composite material. This mechanism is related to the energy absorption process displayed by the plastic deformation, and interfacial delamination within the laminates. The present work expects to provide an initial research platform for considering 3D printing in the manufacturing process of hybrid laminates.
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35
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Discrete-Event Simulation Thermal Model for Extrusion-Based Additive Manufacturing of PLA and ABS. MATERIALS 2020; 13:ma13214985. [PMID: 33167578 PMCID: PMC7664205 DOI: 10.3390/ma13214985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The material properties of thermoplastic polymer parts manufactured by the extrusion-based additive manufacturing process are highly dependent on the thermal history. Different numerical models have been proposed to simulate the thermal history of a 3D-printed part. However, they are limited due to limited geometric applicability; low accuracy; or high computational demand. Can the time–temperature history of a 3D-printed part be simulated by a computationally less demanding, fast numerical model without losing accuracy? This paper describes the numerical implementation of a simplified discrete-event simulation model that offers accuracy comparable to a finite element model but is faster by two orders of magnitude. Two polymer systems with distinct thermal properties were selected to highlight differences in the simulation of the orthotropic response and the temperature-dependent material properties. The time–temperature histories from the numerical model were compared to the time–temperature histories from a conventional finite element model and were found to match closely. The proposed highly parallel numerical model was approximately 300–500 times faster in simulating thermal history compared to the conventional finite element model. The model would enable designers to compare the effects of several printing parameters for specific 3D-printed parts and select the most suitable parameters for the part.
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36
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Terekhina S, Tarasova T, Egorov S, Skornyakov I, Guillaumat L, Hattali M. The effect of build orientation on both flexural quasi-static and fatigue behaviours of filament deposited PA6 polymer. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FATIGUE 2020; 140:105825. [PMID: 32834205 PMCID: PMC7357525 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2020.105825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The present paper aims to study the effect of manufacturing build orientation on both flexural quasi-static and fatigue behaviours of semi-crystalline polyamide 6 obtained by Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), by considering the porosity and surface roughness. The glass transition temperature, melting temperature, and crystallinity degree were measured complementary to understand better the process. Fatigue analysis is here fully described in visco-elastic domain of material. The results highlight that the XZ build orientation is better than the XY one and suggest that porosity plays an important role. The obtained results are also compared with conventional techniques given by the literature review.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Terekhina
- Arts et Métiers ParisTech, Campus Angers, Laboratory LAMPA, 2 Bd du Ronceray, 49035 Angers Cedex 1, France
| | - T. Tarasova
- Moscow State University of Technology “STANKIN”, 3-A Vadkovskiy Pereulok, 127055 Moscow, Russia
| | - S. Egorov
- Moscow State University of Technology “STANKIN”, 3-A Vadkovskiy Pereulok, 127055 Moscow, Russia
| | - I. Skornyakov
- Moscow State University of Technology “STANKIN”, 3-A Vadkovskiy Pereulok, 127055 Moscow, Russia
| | - L. Guillaumat
- Arts et Métiers ParisTech, Campus Angers, Laboratory LAMPA, 2 Bd du Ronceray, 49035 Angers Cedex 1, France
| | - M.L. Hattali
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, FAST, 91405 Orsay, France
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37
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Geng Y, He H, Liu H, Jing H. Preparation of polycarbonate/poly(lactic acid) with improved printability and processability for fused deposition modeling. POLYM ADVAN TECHNOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/pat.5013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yi Geng
- School of Materials Science and Engineering South China University of Technology Tianhe District, Guangzhou Guangdong China
| | - Hui He
- School of Materials Science and Engineering South China University of Technology Tianhe District, Guangzhou Guangdong China
| | - Hao Liu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering South China University of Technology Tianhe District, Guangzhou Guangdong China
| | - Huaishuai Jing
- School of Materials Science and Engineering South China University of Technology Tianhe District, Guangzhou Guangdong China
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38
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Mercado-Colmenero JM, La Rubia MD, Mata-Garcia E, Rodriguez-Santiago M, Martin-Doñate C. Experimental and Numerical Analysis for the Mechanical Characterization of PETG Polymers Manufactured with FDM Technology under Pure Uniaxial Compression Stress States for Architectural Applications. Polymers (Basel) 2020; 12:polym12102202. [PMID: 32992856 PMCID: PMC7600181 DOI: 10.3390/polym12102202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper presents the numerical and experimental analysis performed on the polymeric material Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol (PETG) manufactured with Fused Deposition Modeling Technology (FDM) technology, aiming at obtaining its mechanical characterization under uniaxial compression loads. Firstly, with the objective of evaluating the printing direction that poses a greater mechanical strength, eighteen test specimens were manufactured and analyzed according to the requirements of the ISO-604 standards. After that, a second experimental test analyzed the mechanical behavior of an innovative structural design manufactured in Z and X–Y directions under uniaxial compression loads according to the requirements of the Spanish CTE standard. The experimental results point to a mechanical linear behavior of PETG in X, Y and Z manufacturing directions up to strain levels close to the yield strength point. SEM micrographs show different structural failures linked to the specimen manufacturing directions. Test specimens manufactured along X present a brittle fracture caused by a delamination process. On the contrary, test specimens manufactured along X and Y directions show permanent plastic deformations, great flexibility and less strength under compression loads. Two numerical analyses were performed on the structural part using Young’s compression modulus obtained from the experimental tests and the load specifications required for the Spanish CTE standards. The comparison between numerical and experimental results presents a percentage of relative error of 2.80% (Z-axis), 3.98% (X-axis) and 3.46% (Y-axis), which allows characterizing PETG plastic material manufactured with FDM as an isotropic material in the numerical simulation software without modifying the material modeling equations in the data software. The research presented here is of great help to researchers working with polymers and FDM technology for companies that might need to numerically simulate new designs with the PETG polymer and FDM technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Manuel Mercado-Colmenero
- Department of Engineering Graphics Design and Projects, University of Jaen, 23071 Jaen, Spain; (J.M.M.-C.); (E.M.-G.); (M.R.-S.)
| | - M. Dolores La Rubia
- Department of Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering, University of Jaen, 23071 Jaen, Spain;
| | - Elena Mata-Garcia
- Department of Engineering Graphics Design and Projects, University of Jaen, 23071 Jaen, Spain; (J.M.M.-C.); (E.M.-G.); (M.R.-S.)
| | - Moises Rodriguez-Santiago
- Department of Engineering Graphics Design and Projects, University of Jaen, 23071 Jaen, Spain; (J.M.M.-C.); (E.M.-G.); (M.R.-S.)
| | - Cristina Martin-Doñate
- Department of Engineering Graphics Design and Projects, University of Jaen, 23071 Jaen, Spain; (J.M.M.-C.); (E.M.-G.); (M.R.-S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-953212821; Fax: +34-953212334
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39
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Harris M, Potgieter J, Ray S, Archer R, Arif KM. Polylactic acid and high‐density polyethylene blend: Characterization and application in additive manufacturing. J Appl Polym Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/app.49602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Harris
- Department of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering SF&AT, Massey University Auckland New Zealand
- University of Engineering and Technology Lahore Pakistan
| | - Johan Potgieter
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University Palmerston North New Zealand
| | - Sudip Ray
- Department of Chemical Sciences The University of Auckland Auckland New Zealand
| | - Richard Archer
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University Palmerston North New Zealand
| | - Khalid Mahmood Arif
- Department of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering SF&AT, Massey University Auckland New Zealand
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40
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Influence of Controlled Cooling on Crystallinity of Poly (L-Lactic Acid) Scaffolds after Hydrolytic Degradation. MATERIALS 2020; 13:ma13132943. [PMID: 32630123 PMCID: PMC7372402 DOI: 10.3390/ma13132943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2020] [Revised: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The use of hybrid manufacturing to produce bimodal scaffolds has represented a great advancement in tissue engineering. These scaffolds provide a favorable environment in which cells can adhere and produce new tissue. However, there are several areas of opportunity to manufacture structures that provide enough strength and rigidity, while also improving chemical integrity. As an advancement in the manufacturing process of scaffolds, a cooling system was introduced in a fused deposition modeling (FDM) machine to vary the temperature on the printing bed. Two groups of polylactic acid (PLA) scaffolds were then printed at two different bed temperatures. The rate of degradation was evaluated during eight weeks in Hank's Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS) in a controlled environment (37 °C-120 rpm) to assess crystallinity. Results showed the influence of the cooling system on the degradation rate of printed scaffolds after the immersion period. This phenomenon was attributable to the mechanism associated with alkaline hydrolysis, where a higher degree of crystallinity obtained in one group induced greater rates of mass loss. The overall crystallinity was observed, through differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA), and Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis, to increase with time because of the erosion of some amorphous parts after immersion.
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41
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Surface Characteristics of Machined Polystyrene with 3D Printed Thermoplastic Tool. MATERIALS 2020; 13:ma13122729. [PMID: 32560234 PMCID: PMC7345497 DOI: 10.3390/ma13122729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
An effort is made in this work to appraise the surface characteristics of machined expandable polystyrene (EPS) with a novel 3D printed thermoplastic acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) tool. Linear grooves on EPS were made on a vertical milling machine that was modified to conduct experiments in the laboratory. The tests were designed as per the Taguchi L9 based factorial design of experimentation while varying process parameters such as depth of cut, spindle speed, and feed rate. The machining responses dimensional accuracy and surface roughness of the machined grooves were studied. Furthermore, the surface topography of the machined specimens was considered to investigate the mechanism of material removal in response to the processing conditions. Moreover, mathematical models developed for the prediction of the output responses showed a significant correlation with the experimental results. The results of the statistical study indicate that the surface roughness is influenced by the spindle speed and dimensional accuracy by the depth-of-cut. Overall, the findings of the experimental work advocated the feasibility of 3D printed thermoplastic tools for machining soft polymeric materials. It can become a useful alternative for mass and batch production.
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42
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Wasti S, Adhikari S. Use of Biomaterials for 3D Printing by Fused Deposition Modeling Technique: A Review. Front Chem 2020; 8:315. [PMID: 32457867 PMCID: PMC7221194 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2020.00315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a revolutionary manufacturing technique that can fabricate a 3D object by depositing materials layer by layer. Different materials such as metals, polymers, and concretes are generally used for 3D printing. In order to make 3D printing sustainable, researchers are working on the use of different bioderived materials for 3D printing. Because of the abundant and sustainable sources, and versatile properties, biomaterials are considered as the potential candidates that have the ability to replace petroleum-based polymers. This review highlights the basic overview of fused deposition modeling (FDM) technique of 3D printing and recent developments that have occurred on FDM printing using biomaterials. Specifically, FDM printing process, final properties, and characteristics of biopolymers, their composites, and polymers containing biofillers are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjita Wasti
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Center for Bioenergy and Bioproducts, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Sushil Adhikari
- Department of Biosystems Engineering, Center for Bioenergy and Bioproducts, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
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43
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Methods for the Characterization of Polyetherimide Based Materials Processed by Fused Deposition Modelling. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/app10093195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Fused deposition modelling (FDM™) is one of the most promising additive manufacturing technologies and its application in industrial practice is increasingly spreading. Among its successful applications, FDM™ is used in structural applications thanks to the mechanical performances guaranteed by the printed parts. Currently, a shared international standard specifically developed for the testing of FDM™ printed parts is not available. To overcome this limit, we have considered three different tests aimed at characterizing the mechanical properties of technological materials: tensile test (ASTM D638), flexural test (ISO 178) and short-beam shear test (ASTM D2344M). Two aerospace qualified ULTEMTM 9085 resins (i.e., tan and black grades) have been used for printing all specimens by means of an industrial printer (Fortus 400mc). The aim of this research was to improve the understanding of the efficiency of different mechanical tests to characterize materials used for FDM™. For each type of test, the influence on the mechanical properties of the specimen’s materials and geometry was studied using experimental designs. For each test, 22 screening factorial designs were considered and analyzed. The obtained results demonstrated that the use of statistical analysis is recommended to ascertain the real pivotal effects and that specific test standards for FDM™ components are needed to support the development of materials in the additive manufacturing field.
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44
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Akhoundi B, Nabipour M, Hajami F, Shakoori D. An Experimental Study of Nozzle Temperature and Heat Treatment (Annealing) Effects on Mechanical Properties of High‐Temperature Polylactic Acid in Fused Deposition Modeling. POLYM ENG SCI 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/pen.25353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Behnam Akhoundi
- Additive Manufacturing Laboratory, Faculty of Mechanical EngineeringTarbiat Modares University Tehran 14115‐143 Iran
| | - Mojtaba Nabipour
- Additive Manufacturing Laboratory, Faculty of Mechanical EngineeringTarbiat Modares University Tehran 14115‐143 Iran
| | - Faramarz Hajami
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of MechatronicsKaraj Branch, Islamic Azad University Karaj Iran
| | - Diana Shakoori
- Faculty of Electrical, Biomedical and Mechatronics EngineeringQazvin Branch, Islamic Azad University Qazvin Iran
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45
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Mercado-Colmenero JM, Martin-Doñate C, Moramarco V, Attolico MA, Renna G, Rodriguez-Santiago M, Casavola C. Mechanical Characterization of the Plastic Material GF-PA6 Manufactured Using FDM Technology for a Compression Uniaxial Stress Field via an Experimental and Numerical Analysis. Polymers (Basel) 2020; 12:polym12010246. [PMID: 31968605 PMCID: PMC7023638 DOI: 10.3390/polym12010246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This manuscript presents an experimental and numerical analysis of the mechanical structural behavior of Nylstrong GF-PA6, a plastic material manufactured using FDM (fused deposition modeling) technology for a compression uniaxial stress field. Firstly, an experimental test using several test specimens fabricated in the Z and X-axis allows characterizing the elastic behavior of the reinforced GF-PA6 according to the ISO 604 standard for uniaxial compression stress environments in both Z and X manufacturing orientations. In a second stage, an experimental test analyzes the structural behavior of an industrial part manufactured under the same conditions as the test specimens. The experimental results for the test specimens manufactured in the Z and X-axis present differences in the stress-strain curve. Z-axis printed elements present a purely linear elastic behavior and lower structural integrity, while X-axis printed elements present a nonlinear elastic behavior typical of plastic and foam materials. In order to validate the experimental results, numerical analysis for an industrial part is carried out, defining the material GF-PA6 as elastic and isotropic with constant Young’s compression modulus according to ISO standard 604. Simulations and experimental tests show good accuracy, obtaining errors of 0.91% on the Z axis and 0.56% on the X-axis between virtual and physical models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Manuel Mercado-Colmenero
- Department of Engineering Graphics Design and Projects, University of Jaen, Campus Las Lagunillas, s/n. Building A3, 23071 Jaen, Spain; (J.M.M.-C.); (M.R.-S.)
| | - Cristina Martin-Doñate
- Department of Engineering Graphics Design and Projects, University of Jaen, Campus Las Lagunillas, s/n. Building A3, 23071 Jaen, Spain; (J.M.M.-C.); (M.R.-S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-953212821; Fax: +34-953212334
| | - Vincenzo Moramarco
- Dipartimento di Meccanica, Matematica e Management (DMMM), Politecnico di Bari, Viale Japigia, 182–70126 Bari, Italy; (V.M.); (M.A.A.); (G.R.); (C.C.)
| | - Michele Angelo Attolico
- Dipartimento di Meccanica, Matematica e Management (DMMM), Politecnico di Bari, Viale Japigia, 182–70126 Bari, Italy; (V.M.); (M.A.A.); (G.R.); (C.C.)
| | - Gilda Renna
- Dipartimento di Meccanica, Matematica e Management (DMMM), Politecnico di Bari, Viale Japigia, 182–70126 Bari, Italy; (V.M.); (M.A.A.); (G.R.); (C.C.)
| | - Moises Rodriguez-Santiago
- Department of Engineering Graphics Design and Projects, University of Jaen, Campus Las Lagunillas, s/n. Building A3, 23071 Jaen, Spain; (J.M.M.-C.); (M.R.-S.)
| | - Caterina Casavola
- Dipartimento di Meccanica, Matematica e Management (DMMM), Politecnico di Bari, Viale Japigia, 182–70126 Bari, Italy; (V.M.); (M.A.A.); (G.R.); (C.C.)
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Harris M, Potgieter J, Ray S, Archer R, Arif KM. Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene and Polypropylene Blend with Enhanced Thermal and Mechanical Properties for Fused Filament Fabrication. MATERIALS 2019; 12:ma12244167. [PMID: 31835874 PMCID: PMC6947441 DOI: 10.3390/ma12244167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Revised: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is the oldest fused filament fabrication (FFF) material that shows low stability to thermal aging due to hydrogen abstraction of the butadiene monomer. A novel blend of ABS, polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene graft maleic anhydride (PE-g-MAH) is presented for FFF. ANOVA was used to analyze the effects of three variables (bed temperature, printing temperature, and aging interval) on tensile properties of the specimens made on a custom-built pellet printer. The compression and flexure properties were also investigated for the highest thermal combinations. The blend showed high thermal stability with enhanced strength despite three days of aging, as well as high bed and printing temperatures. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) provided significant chemical interactions. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) confirmed the thermal stability with enhanced enthalpy of glass transition and melting. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) also revealed high temperatures for onset and 50% mass degradation. Signs of chemical grafting and physical interlocking in scanning electron microscopy (SEM) also explained the thermo-mechanical stability of the blend.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Harris
- Department of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, SF&AT, Massey University, Auckland 0632, New Zealand;
| | - Johan Potgieter
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (J.P.); (R.A.)
| | - Sudip Ray
- Department of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand;
| | - Richard Archer
- School of Food and Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand; (J.P.); (R.A.)
| | - Khalid Mahmood Arif
- Department of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, SF&AT, Massey University, Auckland 0632, New Zealand;
- Correspondence:
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Nabipour M, Akhoundi B, Bagheri Saed A. Manufacturing of polymer/metal composites by fused deposition modeling process with polyethylene. J Appl Polym Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/app.48717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mojtaba Nabipour
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringTarbiat Modares University Tehran 14115‐143 Iran
| | - Behnam Akhoundi
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringTarbiat Modares University Tehran 14115‐143 Iran
| | - Arvin Bagheri Saed
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringTarbiat Modares University Tehran 14115‐143 Iran
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Mechanical Performance Assessment of Internally-Defected Materials Manufactured Using Additive Manufacturing Technology. JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING AND MATERIALS PROCESSING 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/jmmp3030074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Assessment of the mechanical performance of internally-defected components or struc-tures is of crucial importance to many industrial fields such as aerospace, automobile, marine, construction etc. Most of the studies available in the literature include only analytical or numerical solutions, due to difficulty in the manufacturing of a testing sample with a specific internal defect geometry for experimental evaluations. In this study, Fusion Deposition Modeling (FDM) was utilized in the 3D-printing of Polylactic Acid (PLA) samples with internal cracks, aiming to assess their impact on the samples’ mechanical performance. The defect geometry, orientation, location along the sample gauge length and the influence of the process parameters, such as the infill percentage and the material color, were investigated. The influence of the internal defects is more pronounced for a 100% infill rate if compared with a 50% infill rate as a consequence of the porosity. A maximum drop of ~14% in the peak load of defect-free samples was recorded due to the presence of the internal defect. Moreover, the additive color to the PLA material might contribute to the material strength. Generally, the findings of this work could open another door for utilizing the additive manufacturing in many research areas, with potential industrial applications relevant to the assessment of internally-defected materials.
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