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Banks JD, Emami A. Carbon-Based Piezoresistive Polymer Nanocomposites by Extrusion Additive Manufacturing: Process, Material Design, and Current Progress. 3D PRINTING AND ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING 2024; 11:e548-e571. [PMID: 38689914 PMCID: PMC11057547 DOI: 10.1089/3dp.2022.0153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Advancement in additive manufacturing (AM) allows the production of nanocomposites with complex and custom geometries not typically allowable with conventional manufacturing techniques. The benefits of AM have led to recent interest in producing multifunctional materials capable of being printed with current AM technologies. In this article, piezoresistive composites realized by AM and the matrices and fillers utilized to make such devices are introduced and discussed. Carbon-based nanoparticles (Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene/Graphite, and Carbon Black) are often the filler choice of most researchers and are heavily discussed throughout this review in combination with extrusion AM methods. Piezoresistive applications such as physiological and wearable sensors, structural health monitoring, and soft robotics are presented with an emphasis on material and AM selection to meet the demands of such applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- James D. Banks
- Materials Science, Engineering, & Commercialization, Ingram School of Engineering, Texas State University, San Marcos, Texas, USA
| | - Anahita Emami
- Mechanical Engineering, Ingram School of Engineering, Texas State University, San Marcos, Texas, USA
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2
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Peng K, Yu T, Wu P, Chen M. Piezoresistive Porous Composites with Triply Periodic Minimal Surface Structures Prepared by Self-Resistance Electric Heating and 3D Printing. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:2184. [PMID: 38610395 PMCID: PMC11014199 DOI: 10.3390/s24072184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
Three-dimensional flexible piezoresistive porous sensors are of interest in health diagnosis and wearable devices. In this study, conductive porous sensors with complex triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) structures were fabricated using the 3D printed sacrificial mold and enhancement of MWCNTs. A new curing routine by the self-resistance electric heating was implemented. The porous sensors were designed with different pore sizes and unit cell types of the TPMS (Diamond (D), Gyroid (G), and I-WP (I)). The impact of pore characteristics and the hybrid fabrication technique on the compressive properties and piezoresistive response of the developed porous sensors was studied. The results indicate that the porous sensors cured by the self-resistance electric heating could render a uniform temperature distribution in the composites and reduce the voids in the walls, exhibiting a higher elastic modulus and a better piezoresistive response. Among these specimens, the specimen with the D-based structure cured by self-resistance electric heating showed the highest responsive strain (61%), with a corresponding resistance response value of 0.97, which increased by 10.26% compared to the specimen heated by the external heat sources. This study provides a new perspective on design and fabrication of porous materials with piezoresistive functionalities, particularly in the realm of flexible and portable piezoresistive sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics and System, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China; (K.P.); (P.W.); (M.C.)
- Key Laboratory of Micro-Systems and Micro-Structures Manufacturing, Ministry of Education, Harbin 150001, China
| | - Tianyu Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics and System, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China; (K.P.); (P.W.); (M.C.)
- Key Laboratory of Micro-Systems and Micro-Structures Manufacturing, Ministry of Education, Harbin 150001, China
| | - Pan Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics and System, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China; (K.P.); (P.W.); (M.C.)
- Key Laboratory of Micro-Systems and Micro-Structures Manufacturing, Ministry of Education, Harbin 150001, China
| | - Mingjun Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics and System, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China; (K.P.); (P.W.); (M.C.)
- Key Laboratory of Micro-Systems and Micro-Structures Manufacturing, Ministry of Education, Harbin 150001, China
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3
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Zhang H, Zhang Y. Rational Design of Flexible Mechanical Force Sensors for Healthcare and Diagnosis. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 17:123. [PMID: 38203977 PMCID: PMC10780056 DOI: 10.3390/ma17010123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Over the past decade, there has been a significant surge in interest in flexible mechanical force sensing devices and systems. Tremendous efforts have been devoted to the development of flexible mechanical force sensors for daily healthcare and medical diagnosis, driven by the increasing demand for wearable/portable devices in long-term healthcare and precision medicine. In this review, we summarize recent advances in diverse categories of flexible mechanical force sensors, covering piezoresistive, capacitive, piezoelectric, triboelectric, magnetoelastic, and other force sensors. This review focuses on their working principles, design strategies and applications in healthcare and diagnosis, with an emphasis on the interplay among the sensor architecture, performance, and application scenario. Finally, we provide perspectives on the remaining challenges and opportunities in this field, with particular discussions on problem-driven force sensor designs, as well as developments of novel sensor architectures and intelligent mechanical force sensing systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hang Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore;
| | - Yihui Zhang
- Applied Mechanics Laboratory, Department of Engineering Mechanics, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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Hassan MS, Zaman S, Dantzler JZR, Leyva DH, Mahmud MS, Ramirez JM, Gomez SG, Lin Y. 3D Printed Integrated Sensors: From Fabrication to Applications-A Review. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:3148. [PMID: 38133045 PMCID: PMC10745374 DOI: 10.3390/nano13243148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
The integration of 3D printed sensors into hosting structures has become a growing area of research due to simplified assembly procedures, reduced system complexity, and lower fabrication cost. Embedding 3D printed sensors into structures or bonding the sensors on surfaces are the two techniques for the integration of sensors. This review extensively discusses the fabrication of sensors through different additive manufacturing techniques. Various additive manufacturing techniques dedicated to manufacture sensors as well as their integration techniques during the manufacturing process will be discussed. This review will also discuss the basic sensing mechanisms of integrated sensors and their applications. It has been proven that integrating 3D printed sensors into infrastructures can open new possibilities for research and development in additive manufacturing and sensor materials for smart goods and the Internet of Things.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Sahid Hassan
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA; (S.Z.); (J.Z.R.D.); (D.H.L.); (M.S.M.); (J.M.R.); (S.G.G.)
- Aerospace Center, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA
| | - Saqlain Zaman
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA; (S.Z.); (J.Z.R.D.); (D.H.L.); (M.S.M.); (J.M.R.); (S.G.G.)
- Aerospace Center, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA
| | - Joshua Z. R. Dantzler
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA; (S.Z.); (J.Z.R.D.); (D.H.L.); (M.S.M.); (J.M.R.); (S.G.G.)
- Aerospace Center, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA
| | - Diana Hazel Leyva
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA; (S.Z.); (J.Z.R.D.); (D.H.L.); (M.S.M.); (J.M.R.); (S.G.G.)
- Aerospace Center, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA
| | - Md Shahjahan Mahmud
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA; (S.Z.); (J.Z.R.D.); (D.H.L.); (M.S.M.); (J.M.R.); (S.G.G.)
- Aerospace Center, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA
| | - Jean Montes Ramirez
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA; (S.Z.); (J.Z.R.D.); (D.H.L.); (M.S.M.); (J.M.R.); (S.G.G.)
- Aerospace Center, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA
| | - Sofia Gabriela Gomez
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA; (S.Z.); (J.Z.R.D.); (D.H.L.); (M.S.M.); (J.M.R.); (S.G.G.)
- Aerospace Center, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA
| | - Yirong Lin
- Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA; (S.Z.); (J.Z.R.D.); (D.H.L.); (M.S.M.); (J.M.R.); (S.G.G.)
- Aerospace Center, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX 79968, USA
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Wang J, Sun S, Li X, Fei G, Wang Z, Xia H. Selective Laser Sintering of Polydimethylsiloxane Composites. 3D PRINTING AND ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING 2023; 10:684-696. [PMID: 37609593 PMCID: PMC10440645 DOI: 10.1089/3dp.2021.0105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/24/2023]
Abstract
Conductive silicone elastomer carbon nanotubes (CNTs) composites possess potential applications in a variety of fields, including electronic skin, wearable electronics, and human motion detection. Based on a novel self-made covalent adaptable network (CANs) of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) containg dynamic steric-hindrance pyrazole urea bond (PDMS-CANs), CNTs wrapped PDMS-CANs (CNTs@PDMS-CANs) powders were prepared by a liquid phase adsorption and deposition, and were successfully used for selective laser sintering (SLS) three-dimensional printing. SLS-printed PDMS-CANs/CNTs nanocomposites possess high electrical conductivity and low percolation threshold as SLS is one kind of quasi-static processing, which leads to the formation of conductive segregated CNTs network by using the PDMS powders with special CNTs wrapped structure. The introduction of dynamic pyrazole urea bond endows the materials self-healing capability under electrothermal and photothermal stimulus. In addition, due to the resistance difference of the damaged and intact areas, crack diagnosing can be realized by infrared thermograph under electricity. In an application demonstration in strain sensor, the composite exhibits a regular cyclic electrical resistance change at cyclic compression and bending, indicating a relative high reliability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinzhi Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Shaojie Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xue Li
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Guoxia Fei
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Zhanhua Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Hesheng Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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Smocot S, Zhang Z, Zhang L, Guo S, Cao C. Printed flexible mechanical sensors. NANOSCALE 2022; 14:17134-17156. [PMID: 36385388 DOI: 10.1039/d2nr04015h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Flexible mechanical sensors (e.g., strain, pressure, and force) fabricated primarily by printing technologies have emerged and evolved promptly in the past several years. 2D and 3D printing approaches enabled rapid prototyping of various flexible mechanical sensors that have demonstrated their unique applications in fields including robotics, human-machine interfaces, and biomedicine. Research efforts have primarily been focused on experimenting with different materials, device configurations, and sensing mechanisms to achieve better sensing performance. While great progress has been made, this field is still in its infancy where most research is exploratory; and even the performance standards and long-term objective/vision of these sensors are not clear. In this review, the state-of-the-art of three types of printed flexible mechanical sensors will be discussed and analyzed in terms of their fabrication methods, types of sensing materials and mechanisms, and challenges for future development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Smocot
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
| | - Zixin Zhang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
| | - Lingzhi Zhang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
| | - Shu Guo
- School of Vehicle and Energy, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao, China.
| | - Changhong Cao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
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Eisape A, Rennoll V, Van Volkenburg T, Xia Z, West JE, Kang SH. Soft CNT-Polymer Composites for High Pressure Sensors. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:5268. [PMID: 35890946 PMCID: PMC9323882 DOI: 10.3390/s22145268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Revised: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Carbon−polymer composite-based pressure sensors have many attractive features, including low cost, easy integration, and facile fabrication. Previous studies on carbon−polymer composite sensors focused on very high sensitivities for low pressure ranges (10 s of kPa), which saturate quickly at higher pressures and thus are ill-suited to measure the high pressure ranges found in various applications, including those in underwater (>1 atm, 101 kPa) and industrial environments. Current sensors designed for high pressure environments are often difficult to fabricate, expensive, and, similarly to their low-pressure counterparts, have a narrow sensing range. To address these issues, this work reports the design, synthesis, characterization, and analysis of high-pressure TPU-MWCNT based composite sensors, which detect pressures from 0.5 MPa (4.9 atm) to over 10 MPa (98.7 atm). In this study, the typical approach to improve sensitivity by increasing conductive additive concentration was found to decrease sensor performance at elevated pressures. It is shown that a better approach to elevated pressure sensitivity is to increase sensor response range by decreasing the MWCNT weight percentage, which improves sensing range and resolution. Such sensors can be useful for measuring high pressures in many industrial (e.g., manipulator feedback), automotive (e.g., damping elements, bushings), and underwater (e.g., depth sensors) applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adebayo Eisape
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA; (A.E.); (V.R.); (J.E.W.)
| | - Valerie Rennoll
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA; (A.E.); (V.R.); (J.E.W.)
| | - Tessa Van Volkenburg
- Research and Exploratory Development Department (REDD), Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD 20723, USA; (T.V.V.); (Z.X.)
| | - Zhiyong Xia
- Research and Exploratory Development Department (REDD), Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD 20723, USA; (T.V.V.); (Z.X.)
| | - James E. West
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA; (A.E.); (V.R.); (J.E.W.)
| | - Sung Hoon Kang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hopkins Extreme Materials Institute (HEMI), Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
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Garzón-Posada AO, Paredes-Madrid L, Peña A, Fontalvo VM, Palacio C. Enhancing Part-to-Part Repeatability of Force-Sensing Resistors Using a Lean Six Sigma Approach. MICROMACHINES 2022; 13:mi13060840. [PMID: 35744454 PMCID: PMC9228405 DOI: 10.3390/mi13060840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Polymer nanocomposites have found wide acceptance in research applications as pressure sensors under the designation of force-sensing resistors (FSRs). However, given the random dispersion of conductive nanoparticles in the polymer matrix, the sensitivity of FSRs notably differs from one specimen to another; this condition has precluded the use of FSRs in industrial applications that require large part-to-part repeatability. Six Sigma methodology provides a standard framework to reduce the process variability regarding a critical variable. The Six Sigma core is the DMAIC cycle (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control). In this study, we have deployed the DMAIC cycle to reduce the process variability of sensor sensitivity, where sensitivity was defined by the rate of change in the output voltage in response to the applied force. It was found that sensor sensitivity could be trimmed by changing their input (driving) voltage. The whole process comprised: characterization of FSR sensitivity, followed by physical modeling that let us identify the underlying physics of FSR variability, and ultimately, a mechanism to reduce it; this process let us enhance the sensors’ part-to-part repeatability from an industrial standpoint. Two mechanisms were explored to reduce the variability in FSR sensitivity. (i) It was found that the output voltage at null force can be used to discard noncompliant sensors that exhibit either too high or too low sensitivity; this observation is a novel contribution from this research. (ii) An alternative method was also proposed and validated that let us trim the sensitivity of FSRs by means of changing the input voltage. This study was carried out from 64 specimens of Interlink FSR402 sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés O. Garzón-Posada
- Faculty of Engineering, Universidad Católica de Colombia, Carrera 13 # 47-30, Bogota 110221, Colombia; (A.O.G.-P.); (V.M.F.)
- Department of Applied Physics, Materials and Surface Lab (Nanotechnology Unit), Faculty of Sciences, Universidad de Málaga, ES29071 Malaga, Spain
| | - Leonel Paredes-Madrid
- Faculty of Engineering, Universidad Católica de Colombia, Carrera 13 # 47-30, Bogota 110221, Colombia; (A.O.G.-P.); (V.M.F.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +57-(1)-327-7300
| | - Angela Peña
- Faculty of Mechanical, Biomedical and Electronic Engineering, Universidad Antonio Nariño, Carrera 7 # 21-84, Tunja 150001, Colombia;
| | - Victor M. Fontalvo
- Faculty of Engineering, Universidad Católica de Colombia, Carrera 13 # 47-30, Bogota 110221, Colombia; (A.O.G.-P.); (V.M.F.)
| | - Carlos Palacio
- GIFAM Group, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Antonio Nariño, Carrera 7 # 21-84, Tunja 150001, Colombia;
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Recent Advances in Electronic Skins with Multiple-Stimuli-Responsive and Self-Healing Abilities. MATERIALS 2022; 15:ma15051661. [PMID: 35268894 PMCID: PMC8911295 DOI: 10.3390/ma15051661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Wearable electronic skin (e-skin) has provided a revolutionized way to intelligently sense environmental stimuli, which shows prospective applications in health monitoring, artificial intelligence and prosthetics fields. Drawn inspiration from biological skins, developing e-skin with multiple stimuli perception and self-healing abilities not only enrich their bionic multifunctionality, but also greatly improve their sensory performance and functional stability. In this review, we highlight recent important developments in the material structure design strategy to imitate the fascinating functionalities of biological skins, including molecular synthesis, physical structure design, and special biomimicry engineering. Moreover, their specific structure-property relationships, multifunctional application, and existing challenges are also critically analyzed with representative examples. Furthermore, a summary and perspective on future directions and challenges of biomimetic electronic skins regarding function construction will be briefly discussed. We believe that this review will provide valuable guidance for readers to fabricate superior e-skin materials or devices with skin-like multifunctionalities and disparate characteristics.
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