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Rebelo WB, Zaccaron A, Saviatto E, Olivo EF, Acordi J, Raupp-Pereira F, Ribeiro MJ. Valorization of the Residual Fraction of Coal Tailings: A Mineral Circularity Strategy for the Clay Ceramic Industry in the Carboniferous Region of Santa Catarina, Southern Brazil. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 17:2131. [PMID: 38730937 PMCID: PMC11084773 DOI: 10.3390/ma17092131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2024] [Revised: 04/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024]
Abstract
Mineral extraction of coal in the carboniferous region of southern Santa Catarina (Brazil) plays a significant role in the regional economy. However, this activity has severe environmental impacts, with approximately 65% of the extracted mineral being discarded as a rejected material (deposited in landfills). The identification of the technological potential of these materials, based on the geological aspects of the extraction site and the beneficiation operations applied to obtain coal, provides the opportunity to add value to different residual fractions that can be reused. Thus, waste valorization, the main objective of this work, has recently become a strategy for the application of these minerals in the production of clay ceramics using a systematic approach named CPQvA, which means "classification, potentiality, quantity/viability, and applicability". The use of these materials as secondary mineral sources can avoid the deposition of these materials in industrial landfills and help to reduce the pressure on landfills, which receive an average of four million tons of material annually. In this study, the residual fraction, part of the tailing from coal beneficiation, known as coal fines, was evaluated for formulation valorization in clay ceramics. This residual fraction was classified as non-hazardous (class II-A, non-inert). X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, X-ray diffraction, and thermogravimetric analysis were performed to characterize the moisture content, particle-size distribution, and coal content to be used in the development of different formulations using the residual fraction of coal tailings (ranging from 0 to 40%) that are of technological interest to the sector. Processing parameters, such as firing at different temperatures (750, 800, 850, and 900 °C), were also correlated with these formulations. The results were compared with those of a reference ceramic formulation from the local productive arrangement of Morro da Fumaça (Arranjo Produtivo Local Cerâmica Vermelha de Morro da Fumaça). The various relationships between the materials were characterized in terms of their thermal shrinkage, water absorption, and mechanical resistance. Leaching and solubilization environmental tests revealed that both the industrial standard formulation and formulations with the application of the residual fraction were classified as non-hazardous materials. Thus, the method of using a mining residual fraction in the formulation of clay ceramics proved to be beneficial for the circular economy in the regional mineral sector through productive and environmental gains; the primary mineral resource and energy consumptions and the impacts related to waste generation were reduced. The results of this study can be applied to similar situations in other parts of the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wagner Benedet Rebelo
- Post-Graduate Program on Materials Science and Engineering (PPGCEM), Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense, Avenida Universitária 1105, Universitário, Criciúma 88806-000, SC, Brazil (A.Z.); (E.S.); (E.F.O.); (J.A.); (F.R.-P.)
- Mining Engineering Department, Universidade da Sociedade de Assistência aos Trabalhadores do Carvão SATC-UNISATC, R. Pascoal Meler, 73-Universitário, Criciúma 88805-380, SC, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Zaccaron
- Post-Graduate Program on Materials Science and Engineering (PPGCEM), Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense, Avenida Universitária 1105, Universitário, Criciúma 88806-000, SC, Brazil (A.Z.); (E.S.); (E.F.O.); (J.A.); (F.R.-P.)
| | - Emily Saviatto
- Post-Graduate Program on Materials Science and Engineering (PPGCEM), Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense, Avenida Universitária 1105, Universitário, Criciúma 88806-000, SC, Brazil (A.Z.); (E.S.); (E.F.O.); (J.A.); (F.R.-P.)
| | - Eduarda Fraga Olivo
- Post-Graduate Program on Materials Science and Engineering (PPGCEM), Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense, Avenida Universitária 1105, Universitário, Criciúma 88806-000, SC, Brazil (A.Z.); (E.S.); (E.F.O.); (J.A.); (F.R.-P.)
| | - Juliana Acordi
- Post-Graduate Program on Materials Science and Engineering (PPGCEM), Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense, Avenida Universitária 1105, Universitário, Criciúma 88806-000, SC, Brazil (A.Z.); (E.S.); (E.F.O.); (J.A.); (F.R.-P.)
| | - Fabiano Raupp-Pereira
- Post-Graduate Program on Materials Science and Engineering (PPGCEM), Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense, Avenida Universitária 1105, Universitário, Criciúma 88806-000, SC, Brazil (A.Z.); (E.S.); (E.F.O.); (J.A.); (F.R.-P.)
| | - Manuel Joaquim Ribeiro
- ProMetheus-Research Unit in Materials, Energy and Environment for Sustainability, Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo, Rua Escola Industrial e Comercial de Nun’Álvares, 4900-347 Viana do Castelo, Portugal
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Cheng J, Shao Z, Wang Y, Wei W, Yuan Y. The current status and future of solid waste recycled building bricks. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:105119-105148. [PMID: 37740163 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-29902-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
Solid waste (SW) has become a problem hindering the economic and social development. Achieving the full green cycle from raw material to production of recycled building bricks (RBB) using SW is the focus of future research. In this paper, the research results of RBB manufacturing using SW in recent years are reviewed. According to the consolidation principle of RBB, the effects of different types of SW on the physicochemical properties and microstructure of RBB are summarized based on the recycled unsintered brick (RUSB) and recycled sintered brick (RSB). By comparing and evaluating the two consolidation methods, it is proposed that RSB has good practicality due to its higher SW utilization rate, higher strength, and faster consolidation speed. Furthermore, the difference between MWS and conventional sintering (CS) is analyzed, and the research on the application of MWS in SW-RBB manufacturing in recent years is reviewed in detail. It is pointed out that microwave sintering (MWS) technology can solve many drawbacks in traditional sintering technology and has great prospects in manufacturing SW-RBB due to the low energy consumption, low pollution, and high efficiency. Finally, the shortcomings and possible challenges in the current research on manufacturing SW-RBB using MWS technology are discussed, which provides guidance for the future development of SW-RBB manufacturing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junxi Cheng
- School of Civil Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture & Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Geotechnical & Underground Space Engineering, Xi'an, 710055, China
| | - Zhushan Shao
- School of Civil Engineering, Xi'an University of Architecture & Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China.
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Geotechnical & Underground Space Engineering, Xi'an, 710055, China.
| | - Yan Wang
- School of Science, Xi'an University of Architecture & Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
| | - Wei Wei
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Geotechnical & Underground Space Engineering, Xi'an, 710055, China
- School of Science, Xi'an University of Architecture & Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
| | - Yuan Yuan
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Geotechnical & Underground Space Engineering, Xi'an, 710055, China
- School of Science, Xi'an University of Architecture & Technology, Xi'an, 710055, China
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Rudziewicz M, Maroszek M, Góra M, Dziura P, Mróz K, Hager I, Hebda M. Feasibility Review of Aerated Materials Application in 3D Concrete Printing. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:6032. [PMID: 37687725 PMCID: PMC10489028 DOI: 10.3390/ma16176032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
Recent years have witnessed a growing global interest in 3D concrete printing technology due to its economic and scientific advantages. The application of foamed concrete, renowned for its exceptional thermal and acoustic insulation properties, not only holds economic attractiveness but also aligns seamlessly with the principles of sustainable development. This study explores various solutions related to 3D printing technology in construction, discussing the design, production, and properties of foamed concrete mixtures. The integration of 3D printing and the potential for automating the entire process offers opportunities to boost productivity and reduce construction costs. Furthermore, the utilization of foamed concrete with its commendable insulation properties will enable a reduction in the usage of materials other than concrete (e.g., mineral wool, facade mesh, and polystyrene), significantly facilitating the recycling process during building demolition. This, in turn, will lead to the preservation of nonrenewable natural resources and a decrease in CO2 emissions. Despite the promising results, there have been limited studies focusing on 3D printing with foamed materials, whereas a survey of the existing body of literature indicates a notable absence of endeavors pertaining to the utilization of aerated concrete within the realm of 3D printing, especially geopolymer composites (GP) and hybrid geopolymer composites (HGP). The outcomes delineated in the ensuing discourse are demonstrative for conventionally used materials rather than the additive manufacturing variant. Hence, this work aims to systematically review existing practices and techniques related to producing foamed concrete with 3D printing technology. This analysis also contributes to the establishment of a foundational framework and furnishes a preliminary basis upon which future endeavors aimed at the 3D printing of aerated concrete can be embarked. The findings from the literature analysis justify the desirability of continuing research on this topic, particularly when considering the potential for large-scale industrial implementation. This article provides a comprehensive state of the knowledge on the development of 3D printing techniques for foamed concrete mixtures. By consolidating and analyzing findings from different studies, this article offers insights into the advancements, challenges, and potential applications of foamed concrete in additive manufacturing processes. This, in turn, contributes to the overall understanding and advancement of 3D printing technologies using foamed concrete as a versatile and sustainable construction material. The encouraging results obtained from the analysis further underscore the need for the continued exploration of 3D printing, especially with an eye towards its industrial-scale implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Rudziewicz
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland; (M.R.); (M.M.); (M.G.); (P.D.)
| | - Marcin Maroszek
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland; (M.R.); (M.M.); (M.G.); (P.D.)
| | - Mateusz Góra
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland; (M.R.); (M.M.); (M.G.); (P.D.)
| | - Paweł Dziura
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland; (M.R.); (M.M.); (M.G.); (P.D.)
| | - Katarzyna Mróz
- Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland; (K.M.); (I.H.)
| | - Izabela Hager
- Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland; (K.M.); (I.H.)
| | - Marek Hebda
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland; (M.R.); (M.M.); (M.G.); (P.D.)
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Ziejewska C, Grela A, Mierzwiński D, Hebda M. Influence of Waste Glass Addition on the Fire Resistance, Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Geopolymer Composites. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:6011. [PMID: 37687704 PMCID: PMC10488462 DOI: 10.3390/ma16176011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 08/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays, humanity has to face the problem of constantly increasing amounts of waste, which cause not only environmental pollution but also poses a critical danger to human health. Moreover, the growth of landfill sites involves high costs of establishment, development, and maintenance. Glass is one of the materials whose recycling ratio is still insufficient. Therefore, in the presented work, the influence of the particle size and share of waste glass on the consistency, morphology, specific surface area, water absorption, setting time, and mechanical properties of geopolymers was determined. Furthermore, for the first time, the fire resistance and final setting time of such geopolymer composites were presented in a wide range. Based on the obtained results, it was found that the geopolymer containing 20% unsorted waste glass obtained a final setting time that was 44% less than the sample not containing waste glass, 51.5 MPa of compressive strength (135.2% higher than the reference sample), and 13.5 MPa of residual compressive strength after the fire resistance test (164.7% more than the reference sample). Furthermore, it was found that the final setting time and the total pore volume closely depended on the additive's share and particle size. In addition, the use of waste glass characterized by larger particle sizes led to higher strength and lower mass loss after exposure to high temperatures compared to the composite containing smaller ones. The results presented in this work allow not only for reducing the costs and negative impact on the environment associated with landfilling but also for developing a simple, low-cost method of producing a modern geopolymer composite with beneficial properties for the construction industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celina Ziejewska
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland; (C.Z.); (D.M.)
| | - Agnieszka Grela
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering and Energy, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland;
| | - Dariusz Mierzwiński
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland; (C.Z.); (D.M.)
| | - Marek Hebda
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland; (C.Z.); (D.M.)
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Ziejewska C, Grela A, Hebda M. Influence of Waste Glass Particle Size on the Physico-Mechanical Properties and Porosity of Foamed Geopolymer Composites Based on Coal Fly Ash. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:2044. [PMID: 36903157 PMCID: PMC10004531 DOI: 10.3390/ma16052044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
In order to protect the environment and counteract climate change, it is necessary to take any actions that enable a reduction in CO2 emissions. One of the key areas is research focused on developing alternative sustainable materials for construction to reduce the global demand for cement. This work presents the properties of foamed geopolymers with the addition of waste glass as well as determined the optimal size and amount of waste glass for improving the mechanical and physical features of the produced composites. Several geopolymer mixtures were fabricated by replacing coal fly ash with 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30% of waste glass by weight. Moreover, the effect of using different particle size ranges of the addition (0.1-1200 µm; 200-1200 µm; 100-250 µm; 63-120 µm; 40-63 µm; 0.1-40 µm) in the geopolymer matrix was examined. Based on the results, it was found that the application of 20-30% of waste glass with a particle size range of 0.1-1200 µm and a mean diameter of 550 µm resulted in approximately 80% higher compressive strength in comparison to unmodified material. Moreover, the samples produced using the smallest fraction (0.1-40 µm) of waste glass in the amount of 30% reached the highest specific surface area (43.711 m2/g), maximum porosity (69%), and density of 0.6 g/cm3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celina Ziejewska
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Grela
- Faculty of Environmental and Power Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland
| | - Marek Hebda
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland
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Assessment of Limestone Waste Addition for Fired Clay Bricks. MATERIALS 2022; 15:ma15124263. [PMID: 35744322 PMCID: PMC9229666 DOI: 10.3390/ma15124263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 06/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Our aim was to investigate the feasibility of using limestone waste resulting from stone processing for the manufacturing of fired clay bricks. Waste materials were considered as a partial replacement for clays to reduce the exploitation of natural resources and as a response to the climate neutrality commitments. The samples were prepared to have a waste content of up to 15% and were fired at a temperature of 900 °C. The chemical and mineralogical composition and the physical analysis of raw materials were investigated by using SEM–EDS and XRD diffraction. The result showed an increase in CaO in the clay mixture due to the presence of limestone, which reduced the shrinkage of the products’ compressive strength, up to 55% for samples with a higher content of limestone (15 wt.%), and influenced the samples’ color by making them lighter than the reference sample.
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Abbass W, Abbas S, Aslam F, Ahmed A, Ahmed T, Hashir A, Mamdouh A. Manufacturing of Sustainable Untreated Coal Ash Masonry Units for Structural Applications. MATERIALS 2022; 15:ma15114003. [PMID: 35683300 PMCID: PMC9182409 DOI: 10.3390/ma15114003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Burnt clay bricks are one of the most important building units worldwide, are easy and cheap to make, and are readily available. However, the utilization of fertile clay in the production of burnt clay bricks is also one of the causes of environmental pollution because of the emission of greenhouse gases from industrial kilns during the large-scale burning process. Therefore, there is a need to develop a new class of building units (bricks) incorporating recycled industrial waste, leading toward sustainable construction by a reduction in the environmental overburden. This research aimed to explore the potential of untreated coal ash for the manufacturing of building units (coal ash unburnt bricks). Coal ash unburnt bricks were manufactured at an industrial brick plant by applying a pre-form pressure of 3 MPa and later curing them via water sprinkling in a control shed. Various proportions of coal ash (i.e., 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, and 55%) were employed to investigate the mechanical and durability-related properties of the resulting bricks, then they were compared with conventional burnt clay bricks. Compressive strength, flexural strength, an initial rate of water absorption, efflorescence, microstructural analysis via scanning electron microscopy, and cost analysis were conducted. The results of the compressive strength tests revealed that the compressive strength of coal ash unburnt brick decreased with an increase in the content of coal ash; however, up to a 45% proportion of coal ash, the minimum required compressive strength specified by ASTM C62 and local building codes was satisfied. Furthermore, bricks incorporating up to 45% of coal ash also satisfied the ASTM C62 requirements for water absorption. Coal ash unburnt bricks are lighter in weight owing to their porous developed microstructure. The cost analysis showed that the utilization of untreated, locally available coal ash in brick production leads us on the path toward more economical and sustainable building units.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wasim Abbass
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore 54890, Pakistan; (W.A.); (S.A.); (A.A.); (A.H.)
| | - Safeer Abbas
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore 54890, Pakistan; (W.A.); (S.A.); (A.A.); (A.H.)
| | - Fahid Aslam
- Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering in Al-Kharj, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj 16273, Saudi Arabia
- Correspondence:
| | - Ali Ahmed
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore 54890, Pakistan; (W.A.); (S.A.); (A.A.); (A.H.)
| | - Tauqir Ahmed
- Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences, Lahore 54000, Pakistan;
| | - Agha Hashir
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore 54890, Pakistan; (W.A.); (S.A.); (A.A.); (A.H.)
| | - Amr Mamdouh
- Architectural Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Future University in Egypt, New Cairo 11835, Egypt;
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Feasibility of Using Coal Ash for the Production of Sustainable Bricks. SUSTAINABILITY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/su14116692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
In this research study, environmentally friendly unburnt coal ash (CA) bricks were investigated as an alternative to conventional burnt clay bricks. In this research study, various physical and mechanical properties of unburnt CA bricks were investigated. The unburnt CA bricks were prepared by using 60% CA and 10% lime by weight. In these unburnt CA bricks, varying cement contents (5%, 10%, and 15%), sand contents (10% and 15%), and quarry dust contents (5% and 10%) by weight were used. A forming pressure of 29 MPa was applied through an automatic pressure control system either for 3 s or 6 s. The prepared bricks were moist cured for 28 days. The experimental results exhibited that unburnt CA bricks with 10% cement, 10% sand, and 10% quarry dust subjected to forming pressure for 3 s exhibited the highest compressive strength of 19 MPa and flexural strength of 2.1 MPa. The unburnt CA bricks exhibited reduced water absorption, reduced efflorescence, and lower weight per unit area than the conventional clay bricks. A cost comparison of unburnt CA bricks and clay bricks exhibited that unburnt CA bricks are cost-effective compared to clay bricks.
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Ziejewska C, Marczyk J, Korniejenko K, Bednarz S, Sroczyk P, Łach M, Mikuła J, Figiela B, Szechyńska-Hebda M, Hebda M. 3D Printing of Concrete-Geopolymer Hybrids. MATERIALS 2022; 15:ma15082819. [PMID: 35454512 PMCID: PMC9027359 DOI: 10.3390/ma15082819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Revised: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, 3D concrete printing technology has been developing dynamically. Intensive research is still being carried out on the composition of the materials dedicated to innovative 3D printing solutions. Here, for the first time, concrete-geopolymer hybrids produced with 3D printing technology and dedicated environmentally friendly building construction are presented. The concrete-geopolymer hybrids consisting of 95% concrete and 5% geopolymer based on fly ash or metakaolin were compared to standard concrete. Moreover, 3D printed samples were compared with the samples of the same composition but prepared by the conventional method of casting into molds. The phase composition, water leachability, compressive, and flexural strength in the parallel and perpendicular directions to the printing direction, and fire resistance followed by compressive strength were evaluated. Concrete-geopolymer hybrids were shown to contain a lower content of hazardous compounds in leaches than concrete samples. The concentration of toxic metals did not exceed the limit values indicated in the Council Decision 2003/33/EC; therefore, the materials were classified as environmentally neutral. The different forms of Si/Al in fly ash and metakaolin resulted in the various potentials for geopolymerization processes, and finally influenced the densification of the hybrids and the potential for immobilization of toxic elements. Although the compressive strength of concrete was approximately 40% higher for cast samples than for 3D printed ones, for the hybrids, the trend was the opposite. The addition of fly ash to concrete resulted in a 20% higher compressive strength compared to an analogous hybrid containing the addition of metakaolin. The compressive strength was 7–10% higher provided the samples were tested in the parallel direction to the Z-axis of the printout. The sample compressive strength of 24–43 MPa decreased to 8–19 MPa after the fire resistance tests as a result of moisture evaporation, weight loss, thermal deformation, and crack development. Importantly, the residual compressive strength of the hybrid samples was 1.5- to 2- fold higher than the concrete samples. Therefore, it can be concluded that the addition of geopolymer to the concrete improved the fire resistance of the samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celina Ziejewska
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland; (C.Z.); (J.M.); (K.K.); (S.B.); (P.S.); (M.Ł.); (J.M.); (B.F.)
| | - Joanna Marczyk
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland; (C.Z.); (J.M.); (K.K.); (S.B.); (P.S.); (M.Ł.); (J.M.); (B.F.)
| | - Kinga Korniejenko
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland; (C.Z.); (J.M.); (K.K.); (S.B.); (P.S.); (M.Ł.); (J.M.); (B.F.)
| | - Sebastian Bednarz
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland; (C.Z.); (J.M.); (K.K.); (S.B.); (P.S.); (M.Ł.); (J.M.); (B.F.)
| | - Piotr Sroczyk
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland; (C.Z.); (J.M.); (K.K.); (S.B.); (P.S.); (M.Ł.); (J.M.); (B.F.)
| | - Michał Łach
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland; (C.Z.); (J.M.); (K.K.); (S.B.); (P.S.); (M.Ł.); (J.M.); (B.F.)
| | - Janusz Mikuła
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland; (C.Z.); (J.M.); (K.K.); (S.B.); (P.S.); (M.Ł.); (J.M.); (B.F.)
| | - Beata Figiela
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland; (C.Z.); (J.M.); (K.K.); (S.B.); (P.S.); (M.Ł.); (J.M.); (B.F.)
| | - Magdalena Szechyńska-Hebda
- Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute-National Research Institute, Radzików, 05-870 Błonie, Poland;
| | - Marek Hebda
- Faculty of Materials Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland; (C.Z.); (J.M.); (K.K.); (S.B.); (P.S.); (M.Ł.); (J.M.); (B.F.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-1262-83423
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Multiclassification Prediction of Clay Sensitivity Using Extreme Gradient Boosting Based on Imbalanced Dataset. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12031143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Predicting clay sensitivity is important to geotechnical engineering design related to clay. Classification charts and field tests have been used to predict clay sensitivity. However, the imbalanced distribution of clay sensitivity is often neglected, and the predictive performance could be more accurate. The purpose of this study was to investigate the performance that extreme gradient boosting (XGboost) method had in predicting multiclass of clay sensitivity, and the ability that synthetic minority over-sampling technique (SMOTE) had in addressing imbalanced categories of clay sensitivity. Six clay parameters were used as the input parameters of XGBoost, and SMOTE was used to deal with imbalanced classes. Then, the dataset was divided using the cross-validation (CV) method. Finally, XGBoost, artificial neural network (ANN), and Naive Bayes (NB) were used to classify clay sensitivity. The F1 score, receiver operating characteristic (ROC), and area under the ROC curve (AUC) were considered as the performance indicators. The results revealed that XGBoost showed the best performance in the multiclassification prediction of clay sensitivity. The F1 score and mean AUC of XGBoost were 0.72 and 0.89, respectively. SMOTE was useful in addressing imbalanced issues, and XGBoost was an effective and reliable method of classifying clay sensitivity.
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Eco-Geopolymers: Physico-Mechanical Features, Radiation Absorption Properties, and Mathematical Model. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14020262. [PMID: 35054669 PMCID: PMC8780130 DOI: 10.3390/polym14020262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 12/31/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Waste ashes and radiation are hazardous environmental and health factors; thus, a lot of attention is paid to their reduction. We present eco-geopolymer building materials (GPBMs) based on the class F fly ashes (FFAs) from thermal power plants (TPPs) and their implementation as a barrier against radioactive radiation. Different methods of production, ratios of FFA to alkali activator, and temperatures of curing were tested. Small spherical particles and higher content of SiO2 resulted in developed surface area and higher reactivity of Isken TPP FFA than Catalagzi TPP FFA. Lower activator concentration (10% vs. 20%) and curing temperature (70 vs. 100 °C) caused an increase in GPBM compressive strength; the highest value was measured as 93.3 MPa. The highest RA was measured for GPBMs, provided alkali activator ratio (Na2SiO3/NaOH) was >2 and its concentration was 20%. The mathematical model developed in this study proved FFA quantity, and thus GPBM mechanical properties, as key factors influencing RA. In the light of these results, the lightweight GPBMs can be excellent materials for the construction sector dedicated to immobilization, storage, and disposal for radionuclides or barriers against radiation; however, multiple steps of their production require careful optimization.
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Hybrid Materials Based on Fly Ash, Metakaolin, and Cement for 3D Printing. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14226874. [PMID: 34832276 PMCID: PMC8618050 DOI: 10.3390/ma14226874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2021] [Revised: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Nowadays, one very dynamic development of 3D printing technology is required in the construction industry. However, the full implementation of this technology requires the optimization of the entire process, starting from the design of printing ideas, and ending with the development and implementation of new materials. The article presents, for the first time, the development of hybrid materials based on a geopolymer or ordinary Portland cement matrix that can be used for various 3D concrete-printing methods. Raw materials used in the research were defined by particle size distribution, specific surface area, morphology by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, thermal analysis, radioactivity tests, X-ray fluorescence, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and leaching. The geopolymers, concrete, and hybrid samples were described according to compressive strength, flexural strength, and abrasion resistance. The study also evaluates the influence of the liquid-to-solid ratio on the properties of geopolymers, based on fly ash (FA) and metakaolin (MK). Printing tests of the analyzed mixtures were also carried out and their suitability for various applications related to 3D printing technology was assessed. Geopolymers and hybrids based on a geopolymer matrix with the addition of 5% cement resulted in the final materials behaving similarly to a non-Newtonian fluid. Without additional treatments, this type of material can be successfully used to fill the molds. The hybrid materials based on cement with a 5% addition of geopolymer, based on both FA and MK, enabled precise detail printing.
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Łach M, Gado RA, Marczyk J, Ziejewska C, Doğan-Sağlamtimur N, Mikuła J, Szechyńska-Hebda M, Hebda M. Process Design for a Production of Sustainable Materials from Post-Production Clay. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 14:953. [PMID: 33670453 PMCID: PMC7922404 DOI: 10.3390/ma14040953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Alkali activated cement (AAC) can be manufactured from industrial by-products to achieve goals of "zero-waste" production. We discuss in detail the AAC production process from (waste) post-production clay, which serves as the calcium-rich material. The effect of different parameters on the changes in properties of the final product, including morphology, phase formation, compressive strength, resistance to the high temperature, and long-term curing is presented. The drying and grinding of clay are required, even if both processes are energy-intensive; the reduction of particle size and the increase of specific surface area is crucial. Furthermore, calcination at 750 °C ensure approximately 20% higher compressive strength of final AAC in comparison to calcination performed at 700 °C. It resulted from the different ratio of phases: Calcite, mullite, quartz, gehlenite, and wollastonite in the final AAC. The type of activators (NaOH, NaOH:KOH mixtures, KOH) affected AAC mechanical properties, significantly. Sodium activators enabled obtaining higher values of strength. However, if KOH is required, the supplementation of initial materials with fly ash or metakaolin could improve the mechanical properties and durability of AAC, even c.a. 28%. The presented results confirm the possibility of recycling post-production clay from the Raciszyn II Jurassic limestone deposit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Łach
- Institute of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Material Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland; (M.Ł.); (J.M.); (C.Z.); (J.M.)
| | - Reda A. Gado
- National Research Center (NRC), Department of Refractories, Ceramic and Building Materials, Dokki 12311, Egypt;
| | - Joanna Marczyk
- Institute of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Material Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland; (M.Ł.); (J.M.); (C.Z.); (J.M.)
| | - Celina Ziejewska
- Institute of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Material Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland; (M.Ł.); (J.M.); (C.Z.); (J.M.)
| | | | - Janusz Mikuła
- Institute of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Material Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland; (M.Ł.); (J.M.); (C.Z.); (J.M.)
| | - Magdalena Szechyńska-Hebda
- The Franciszek Górski Institute of Plant Physiology Polish Academy of Sciences, Niezapominajek 21, 30-239 Cracow, Poland
- The Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute—National Research Institute, Radzików, 05-870 Błonie, Poland
| | - Marek Hebda
- Institute of Materials Engineering, Faculty of Material Engineering and Physics, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland; (M.Ł.); (J.M.); (C.Z.); (J.M.)
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