Objective Diagnosis for Histopathological Images Based on Machine Learning Techniques: Classical Approaches and New Trends

A multi-class brain tumor grading system based on histopathological images using a hybrid YOLO and RESNET networks

Gliomas are primary brain tumors caused by glial cells. These cancers' classification and grading are crucial for prognosis and treatment planning. Deep learning (DL) can potentially improve the digital pathology investigation of brain tumors. In this paper, we developed a technique for visualizing a predictive tumor grading model on histopathology pictures to help guide doctors by emphasizing characteristics and heterogeneity in forecasts. The proposed technique is a hybrid model based on YOLOv5 and ResNet50. The function of YOLOv5 is to localize and classify the tumor in large histopathological whole slide images (WSIs). The suggested technique incorporates ResNet into the feature extraction of the YOLOv5 framework, and the detection results show that our hybrid network is effective for identifying brain tumors from histopathological images. Next, we estimate the glioma grades using the extreme gradient boosting classifier. The high-dimensional characteristics and nonlinear interactions present in histopathology images are well-handled by this classifier. DL techniques have been used in previous computer-aided diagnosis systems for brain tumor diagnosis. However, by combining the YOLOv5 and ResNet50 architectures into a hybrid model specifically designed for accurate tumor localization and predictive grading within histopathological WSIs, our study presents a new approach that advances the field. By utilizing the advantages of both models, this creative integration goes beyond traditional techniques to produce improved tumor localization accuracy and thorough feature extraction. Additionally, our method ensures stable training dynamics and strong model performance by integrating ResNet50 into the YOLOv5 framework, addressing concerns about gradient explosion. The proposed technique is tested using the cancer genome atlas dataset. During the experiments, our model outperforms the other standard ways on the same dataset. Our results indicate that the proposed hybrid model substantially impacts tumor subtype discrimination between low-grade glioma (LGG) II and LGG III. With 97.2% of accuracy, 97.8% of precision, 98.6% of sensitivity, and the Dice similarity coefficient of 97%, the proposed model performs well in classifying four grades. These results outperform current approaches for identifying LGG from high-grade glioma and provide competitive performance in classifying four categories of glioma in the literature.

An Approach toward Automatic Specifics Diagnosis of Breast Cancer Based on an Immunohistochemical Image

The paper explored the problem of automatic diagnosis based on immunohistochemical image analysis. The issue of automated diagnosis is a preliminary and advisory statement for a diagnostician. The authors studied breast cancer histological and immunohistochemical images using the following biomarkers progesterone, estrogen, oncoprotein, and a cell proliferation biomarker. The authors developed a breast cancer diagnosis method based on immunohistochemical image analysis. The proposed method consists of algorithms for image preprocessing, segmentation, and the determination of informative indicators (relative area and intensity of cells) and an algorithm for determining the molecular genetic breast cancer subtype. An adaptive algorithm for image preprocessing was developed to improve the quality of the images. It includes median filtering and image brightness equalization techniques. In addition, the authors developed a software module part of the HIAMS software package based on the Java programming language and the OpenCV computer vision library. Four molecular genetic breast cancer subtypes could be identified using this solution: subtype Luminal A, subtype Luminal B, subtype HER2/neu amplified, and basalt-like subtype. The developed algorithm for the quantitative characteristics of the immunohistochemical images showed sufficient accuracy in determining the cancer subtype "Luminal A". It was experimentally established that the relative area of the nuclei of cells covered with biomarkers of progesterone, estrogen, and oncoprotein was more than 85%. The given approach allows for automating and accelerating the process of diagnosis. Developed algorithms for calculating the quantitative characteristics of cells on immunohistochemical images can increase the accuracy of diagnosis.

Colon Cancer Diagnosis Based on Machine Learning and Deep Learning: Modalities and Analysis Techniques

The treatment and diagnosis of colon cancer are considered to be social and economic challenges due to the high mortality rates. Every year, around the world, almost half a million people contract cancer, including colon cancer. Determining the grade of colon cancer mainly depends on analyzing the gland's structure by tissue region, which has led to the existence of various tests for screening that can be utilized to investigate polyp images and colorectal cancer. This article presents a comprehensive survey on the diagnosis of colon cancer. This covers many aspects related to colon cancer, such as its symptoms and grades as well as the available imaging modalities (particularly, histopathology images used for analysis) in addition to common diagnosis systems. Furthermore, the most widely used datasets and performance evaluation metrics are discussed. We provide a comprehensive review of the current studies on colon cancer, classified into deep-learning (DL) and machine-learning (ML) techniques, and we identify their main strengths and limitations. These techniques provide extensive support for identifying the early stages of cancer that lead to early treatment of the disease and produce a lower mortality rate compared with the rate produced after symptoms develop. In addition, these methods can help to prevent colorectal cancer from progressing through the removal of pre-malignant polyps, which can be achieved using screening tests to make the disease easier to diagnose. Finally, the existing challenges and future research directions that open the way for future work in this field are presented.

A Survey on Human Cancer Categorization Based on Deep Learning

In recent years, we have witnessed the fast growth of deep learning, which involves deep neural networks, and the development of the computing capability of computer devices following the advance of graphics processing units (GPUs). Deep learning can prototypically and successfully categorize histopathological images, which involves imaging classification. Various research teams apply deep learning to medical diagnoses, especially cancer diseases. Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) detect the conventional visual features of disease diagnoses, e.g., lung, skin, brain, prostate, and breast cancer. A CNN has a procedure for perfectly investigating medicinal science images. This study assesses the main deep learning concepts relevant to medicinal image investigation and surveys several charities in the field. In addition, it covers the main categories of imaging procedures in medication. The survey comprises the usage of deep learning for object detection, classification, and human cancer categorization. In addition, the most popular cancer types have also been introduced. This article discusses the Vision-Based Deep Learning System among the dissimilar sorts of data mining techniques and networks. It then introduces the most extensively used DL network category, which is convolutional neural networks (CNNs) and investigates how CNN architectures have evolved. Starting with Alex Net and progressing with the Google and VGG networks, finally, a discussion of the revealed challenges and trends for upcoming research is held.

Deep Learning Approaches and Applications in Toxicologic Histopathology: Current Status and Future Perspectives

Whole slide imaging enables the use of a wide array of digital image analysis tools that are revolutionizing pathology. Recent advances in digital pathology and deep convolutional neural networks have created an enormous opportunity to improve workflow efficiency, provide more quantitative, objective, and consistent assessments of pathology datasets, and develop decision support systems. Such innovations are already making their way into clinical practice. However, the progress of machine learning - in particular, deep learning (DL) - has been rather slower in nonclinical toxicology studies. Histopathology data from toxicology studies are critical during the drug development process that is required by regulatory bodies to assess drug-related toxicity in laboratory animals and its impact on human safety in clinical trials. Due to the high volume of slides routinely evaluated, low-throughput, or narrowly performing DL methods that may work well in small-scale diagnostic studies or for the identification of a single abnormality are tedious and impractical for toxicologic pathology. Furthermore, regulatory requirements around good laboratory practice are a major hurdle for the adoption of DL in toxicologic pathology. This paper reviews the major DL concepts, emerging applications, and examples of DL in toxicologic pathology image analysis. We end with a discussion of specific challenges and directions for future research.

Blind microscopy image denoising with a deep residual and multiscale encoder/decoder network

In computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) focused on microscopy, denoising improves the quality of image analysis. In general, the accuracy of this process may depend both on the experience of the microscopist and on the equipment sensitivity and specificity. A medical image could be corrupted by several perturbations during image acquisition. Nowadays, CAD deep learning applications pre-process images with image denoising models to reinforce learning and prediction. In this work, an innovative and lightweight deep multiscale convolutional encoder-decoder neural network is proposed. Specifically, the encoder uses deterministic mapping to map features into a hidden representation. Then, the latent representation is rebuilt to generate the reconstructed denoised image. Residual learning strategies are used to improve and accelerate the training process using skip connections in bridging across convolutional and deconvolutional layers. The proposed model reaches on average 38.38 of PSNR and 0.98 of SSIM on a test set of 57458 images overcoming state-of-the-art models in the same application domain.Clinical relevance - Encoder-decoder based denoiser enables industry experts to provide more accurate and reliable medical interpretation and diagnosis in a variety of fields, from microscopy to surgery, with the benefit of real-time processing.

Efficient Stain-Aware Nuclei Segmentation Deep Learning Framework for Multi-Center Histopathological Images

Existing nuclei segmentation methods have obtained limited results with multi-center and multi-organ whole-slide images (WSIs) due to the use of different stains, scanners, overlapping, clumped nuclei, and the ambiguous boundary between adjacent cell nuclei. In an attempt to address these problems, we propose an efficient stain-aware nuclei segmentation method based on deep learning for multi-center WSIs. Unlike all related works that exploit a single-stain template from the dataset to normalize WSIs, we propose an efficient algorithm to select a set of stain templates based on stain clustering. Individual deep learning models are trained based on each stain template, and then, an aggregation function based on the Choquet integral is employed to combine the segmentation masks of the individual models. With a challenging multi-center multi-organ WSIs dataset, the experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method outperforms the state-of-art nuclei segmentation methods with aggregated Jaccard index (AJI) and F1-scores of 73.23% and 89.32%, respectively, while achieving a lower number of parameters.

Auto-Colorization of Historical Images Using Deep Convolutional Neural Networks

Enhancement of Cultural Heritage such as historical images is very crucial to safeguard the diversity of cultures. Automated colorization of black and white images has been subject to extensive research through computer vision and machine learning techniques. Our research addresses the problem of generating a plausible colored photograph of ancient, historically black, and white images of Nepal using deep learning techniques without direct human intervention. Motivated by the recent success of deep learning techniques in image processing, a feed-forward, deep Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) in combination with Inception- ResnetV2 is being trained by sets of sample images using back-propagation to recognize the pattern in RGB and grayscale values. The trained neural network is then used to predict two a* and b* chroma channels given grayscale, L channel of test images. CNN vividly colorizes images with the help of the fusion layer accounting for local features as well as global features. Two objective functions, namely, Mean Squared Error (MSE) and Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR), are employed for objective quality assessment between the estimated color image and its ground truth. The model is trained on the dataset created by ourselves with 1.2 K historical images comprised of old and ancient photographs of Nepal, each having 256 × 256 resolution. The loss i.e., MSE, PSNR, and accuracy of the model are found to be 6.08%, 34.65 dB, and 75.23%, respectively. Other than presenting the training results, the public acceptance or subjective validation of the generated images is assessed by means of a user study where the model shows 41.71% of naturalness while evaluating colorization results.