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Palacios-Ortega J, Amigot-Sánchez R, García-Montoya C, Gorše A, Heras-Márquez D, García-Linares S, Martínez-del-Pozo Á, Slotte JP. Determination of the boundary lipids of sticholysins using tryptophan quenching. Sci Rep 2022; 12:17328. [PMID: 36243747 PMCID: PMC9569322 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-21750-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Sticholysins are α-pore-forming toxins produced by the sea-anemone Stichodactyla helianthus. These toxins exert their activity by forming pores on sphingomyelin-containing membranes. Recognition of sphingomyelin by sticholysins is required to start the process of pore formation. Sphingomyelin recognition is coupled with membrane binding and followed by membrane penetration and oligomerization. Many features of these processes are known. However, the extent of contact with each of the different kinds of lipids present in the membrane has received little attention. To delve into this question, we have used a phosphatidylcholine analogue labeled at one of its acyl chains with a doxyl moiety, a known quencher of tryptophan emission. Here we present evidence for the contact of sticholysins with phosphatidylcholine lipids in the sticholysin oligomer, and for how each sticholysin isotoxin is affected differently by the inclusion of cholesterol in the membrane. Furthermore, using phosphatidylcholine analogs that were labeled at different positions of their structure (acyl chains and headgroup) in combination with a variety of sticholysin mutants, we also investigated the depth of the tryptophan residues of sticholysins in the bilayer. Our results indicate that the position of the tryptophan residues relative to the membrane normal is deeper when cholesterol is absent from the membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Palacios-Ortega
- grid.13797.3b0000 0001 2235 8415Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland ,grid.4795.f0000 0001 2157 7667Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rafael Amigot-Sánchez
- grid.4795.f0000 0001 2157 7667Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carmen García-Montoya
- grid.4795.f0000 0001 2157 7667Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Gorše
- grid.4795.f0000 0001 2157 7667Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - Diego Heras-Márquez
- grid.4795.f0000 0001 2157 7667Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sara García-Linares
- grid.4795.f0000 0001 2157 7667Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - Álvaro Martínez-del-Pozo
- grid.4795.f0000 0001 2157 7667Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - J. Peter Slotte
- grid.13797.3b0000 0001 2235 8415Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
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Sea Anemones, Actinoporins, and Cholesterol. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23158771. [PMID: 35955905 PMCID: PMC9369217 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23158771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Spanish or Spanish-speaking scientists represent a remarkably populated group within the scientific community studying pore-forming proteins. Some of these scientists, ourselves included, focus on the study of actinoporins, a fascinating group of metamorphic pore-forming proteins produced within the venom of several sea anemones. These toxic proteins can spontaneously transit from a water-soluble fold to an integral membrane ensemble because they specifically recognize sphingomyelin in the membrane. Once they bind to the bilayer, they subsequently oligomerize into a pore that triggers cell-death by osmotic shock. In addition to sphingomyelin, some actinoporins are especially sensible to some other membrane components such as cholesterol. Our group from Universidad Complutense of Madrid has focused greatly on the role played by sterols in this water–membrane transition, a question which still remains only partially solved and constitutes the main core of the article below.
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Abdoli V, Sarkhosh-Inanlou R, Delirezh N, Aghazadeh S, Shaykh-Baygloo N, Imani M. Cytotoxic effect of sea anemone pore-forming toxin on K562 chronic myeloid leukemia cells. VETERINARY RESEARCH FORUM : AN INTERNATIONAL QUARTERLY JOURNAL 2021; 12:481-485. [PMID: 35529825 PMCID: PMC9010839 DOI: 10.30466/vrf.2020.115033.2737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) is one of prevalent cancer worldwide. In spite of various designed drugs, chemoresistance remains the main obstacle in cancer cure. Therefore, developing novel strategy for treatment of CML is an urgent need. Fragaceatoxin C (FraC) is novel protein toxin from a sea anemone called actinia fragacea with great impacts against cells by pore formation and disturbing cell membrane integrity. The aim of this study was evaluation of FraC toxin toxicity against K562. The bacteria cells harboring expression vector of FraC were induced by IPTG and purified by Ni2+-NTA sepharose affinity chromatography. Then, purified toxin activity was evaluated using RBC hemolytic test. Eventually, evaluation of FraC cytotoxicity and apoptosis were performed using MTT and flow cytometery assays, respectively. Our results revealed that FraC toxin decreased K562 cells viability in a dose- and time-dependent manner with a whole destroy of cancer cells at 35.00 µg mL-1 after 72 hr. Furthermore, flow cytometery analysis indicated that FraC toxin enhanced necrosis along with apoptosis in K562 cells in a dose dependent manner. We speculated that FraC toxin could be considered as a novel candidate for cancer cell researches and treatments provided that it should be turned into a specific agent by engineering and directing to cancer cell membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vali Abdoli
- Department of Basic Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
| | - Roya Sarkhosh-Inanlou
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
| | - Nowruz Delirezh
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
| | - Safiyeh Aghazadeh
- Department of Basic Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
| | | | - Mehdi Imani
- Department of Basic Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Biotechnology, Institute of Biotechnology, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
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Palacios-Ortega J, García-Linares S, Rivera-de-Torre E, Heras-Márquez D, Gavilanes JG, Slotte JP, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á. Structural foundations of sticholysin functionality. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2021; 1869:140696. [PMID: 34246789 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2021.140696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Actinoporins constitute a family of α pore-forming toxins produced by sea anemones. The soluble fold of these proteins consists of a β-sandwich flanked by two α-helices. Actinoporins exert their activity by specifically recognizing sphingomyelin at their target membranes. Once there, they penetrate the membrane with their N-terminal α-helices, a process that leads to the formation of cation-selective pores. These pores kill the target cells by provoking an osmotic shock on them. In this review, we examine the role and relevance of the structural features of actinoporins, down to the residue level. We look at the specific amino acids that play significant roles in the function of actinoporins and their fold. Particular emphasis is given to those residues that display a high degree of conservation across the actinoporin sequences known to date. In light of the latest findings in the field, the membrane requirements for pore formation, the effect of lipid composition, and the process of pore formation are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Palacios-Ortega
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain; Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland.
| | - Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - Esperanza Rivera-de-Torre
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Diego Heras-Márquez
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - J Peter Slotte
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Álvaro Martínez-Del-Pozo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
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Palacios-Ortega J, Rivera-de-Torre E, Gavilanes JG, Slotte JP, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á, García-Linares S. Biophysical approaches to study actinoporin-lipid interactions. Methods Enzymol 2021; 649:307-339. [PMID: 33712191 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2020.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Protein-lipid interactions are crucial events from a biochemical point of view, like the interaction of proteins with the cell plasma membrane, and their study is of great importance. Actinoporins are a very powerful tool to study this kind of interactions, since they are soluble proteins in an aqueous environment, capable of inserting into membranes when they have the adequate composition. In fact, actinoporins have been used to study protein-lipid interactions for many years now. Sometimes it is not possible to use real biological membranes in the experiments, so model membranes need to be used. This article aims to give a thorough description of many of the techniques used to study actinoporin-lipid interactions, using both biological and model membranes: Hemolysis, release of vesicles content, surface plasmon resonance, isothermal titration calorimetry, fluorescence-based measurements, etc. Some of these techniques measure the actinoporins activity and some measure their binding properties. The combination of all the techniques described can offer valuable information about the thermodynamics and the kinetics of the actinoporin-lipid interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Palacios-Ortega
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain; Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Esperanza Rivera-de-Torre
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain; Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - José G Gavilanes
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain
| | - J Peter Slotte
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | | | - Sara García-Linares
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Complutense University, Madrid, Spain.
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Functional and Structural Variation among Sticholysins, Pore-Forming Proteins from the Sea Anemone Stichodactyla helianthus. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21238915. [PMID: 33255441 PMCID: PMC7727798 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21238915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Venoms constitute complex mixtures of many different molecules arising from evolution in processes driven by continuous prey-predator interactions. One of the most common compounds in these venomous cocktails are pore-forming proteins, a family of toxins whose activity relies on the disruption of the plasmatic membranes by forming pores. The venom of sea anemones, belonging to the oldest lineage of venomous animals, contains a large amount of a characteristic group of pore-forming proteins known as actinoporins. They bind specifically to sphingomyelin-containing membranes and suffer a conformational metamorphosis that drives them to make pores. This event usually leads cells to death by osmotic shock. Sticholysins are the actinoporins produced by Stichodactyla helianthus. Three different isotoxins are known: Sticholysins I, II, and III. They share very similar amino acid sequence and three-dimensional structure but display different behavior in terms of lytic activity and ability to interact with cholesterol, an important lipid component of vertebrate membranes. In addition, sticholysins can act in synergy when exerting their toxin action. The subtle, but important, molecular nuances that explain their different behavior are described and discussed throughout the text. Improving our knowledge about sticholysins behavior is important for eventually developing them into biotechnological tools.
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Evaluation of different approaches used to study membrane permeabilization by actinoporins on model lipid vesicles. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2020; 1862:183311. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2020.183311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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Rivera-de-Torre E, Palacios-Ortega J, Garb JE, Slotte JP, Gavilanes JG, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á. Structural and functional characterization of sticholysin III: A newly discovered actinoporin within the venom of the sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus. Arch Biochem Biophys 2020; 689:108435. [PMID: 32485153 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2020.108435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 05/23/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Actinoporins are a family of pore-forming toxins produced by sea anemones as part of their venomous cocktail. These proteins remain soluble and stably folded in aqueous solution, but when interacting with sphingomyelin-containing lipid membranes, they become integral oligomeric membrane structures that form a pore permeable to cations, which leads to cell death by osmotic shock. Actinoporins appear as multigenic families within the genome of sea anemones: several genes encoding very similar actinoporins are detected within the same species. The Caribbean Sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus produces three actinoporins (sticholysins I, II and III; StnI, StnII and StnIII) that differ in their toxic potency. For example, StnII is about four-fold more effective than StnI against sheep erythrocytes in causing hemolysis, and both show synergy. However, StnIII, recently discovered in the S. helianthus transcriptome, has not been characterized so far. Here we describe StnIII's spectroscopic and functional properties and show its potential to interact with the other Stns. StnIII seems to maintain the well-preserved fold of all actinoporins, characterized by a high content of β-sheet, but it is significantly less thermostable. Its functional characterization shows that the critical concentration needed to form active pores is higher than for either StnI or StnII, suggesting differences in behavior when oligomerizing on membrane surfaces. Our results show that StnIII is an interesting and unexpected piece in the puzzle of how this Caribbean Sea anemone species modulates its venomous activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esperanza Rivera-de-Torre
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain; Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA, USA
| | - Juan Palacios-Ortega
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain; Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Jessica E Garb
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA, USA
| | - J Peter Slotte
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Álvaro Martínez-Del-Pozo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
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Pore-forming toxins from sea anemones: from protein-membrane interaction to its implications for developing biomedical applications. ADVANCES IN BIOMEMBRANES AND LIPID SELF-ASSEMBLY 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.abl.2020.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Yap WY, Tan KJSX, Hwang JS. Expansion of Hydra actinoporin-like toxin (HALT) gene family: Expression divergence and functional convergence evolved through gene duplication. Toxicon 2019; 170:10-20. [PMID: 31513812 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Hydra actinoporin-like toxin 1 (HALT-1) was previously shown to cause cytolysis and haemolysis in a number of human cells and has similar functional properties to the actinoporins equinatoxin and sticholysin. In addition to HALT-1, five other HALTs (HALTs 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7) were also isolated from Hydra magnipapillata and expressed as recombinant proteins in this study. We demonstrated that recombinant HALTs have cytolytic activity on HeLa cells but each exhibited a different range of toxicity. All six recombinant HALTs bound to sulfatide, while rHALT-1 and rHALT-3 bound to two additional sphingolipids, lysophosphatidic acid and sphingosine-1-phosphate as indicated by the protein-lipid overlay assay. When either tryptophan133 or tyrosine129 of HALT-1 was mutated, the mutant protein lost binding to sulfatide, lysophosphatidic acid and sphingosine-1-phosphate. As further verification of HALTs' binding to sulfatide, we performed ELISA for each HALT. To determine the cell-type specific gene expression of seven HALTs in Hydra, we searched for individual HALT expression in the single-cell RNA-seq data set of Single Cell Portal. The results showed that HALT-1, 4 and 7 were expressed in differentiating stenoteles. HALT-1 and HALT-6 were expressed in the female germline during oogenesis. HALT-2 was strongly expressed in the gland and mucous cells in the endoderm. Information on HALT-3 and HALT-5 could not be found in the single-cell data set. Our findings show that subfunctionalisation of gene expression following duplication enabled HALTs to become specialized in various cell types of the interstitial cell lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Yuen Yap
- Faculty of Applied Sciences, UCSI University, No. 1, Jalan Menara Gading, UCSI Heights Cheras, 56000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Katrina Joan Shu Xian Tan
- Faculty of Applied Sciences, UCSI University, No. 1, Jalan Menara Gading, UCSI Heights Cheras, 56000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Jung Shan Hwang
- Department of Medical Sciences, School of Healthcare and Medical Sciences, Sunway University, No. 5 Jalan Universiti, Bandar Sunway, 47500, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
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Pore-Forming Proteins from Cnidarians and Arachnids as Potential Biotechnological Tools. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11060370. [PMID: 31242582 PMCID: PMC6628452 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11060370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Revised: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal venoms are complex mixtures of highly specialized toxic molecules. Cnidarians and arachnids produce pore-forming proteins (PFPs) directed against the plasma membrane of their target cells. Among PFPs from cnidarians, actinoporins stand out for their small size and molecular simplicity. While native actinoporins require only sphingomyelin for membrane binding, engineered chimeras containing a recognition antibody-derived domain fused to an actinoporin isoform can nonetheless serve as highly specific immunotoxins. Examples of such constructs targeted against malignant cells have been already reported. However, PFPs from arachnid venoms are less well-studied from a structural and functional point of view. Spiders from the Latrodectus genus are professional insect hunters that, as part of their toxic arsenal, produce large PFPs known as latrotoxins. Interestingly, some latrotoxins have been identified as potent and highly-specific insecticides. Given the proteinaceous nature of these toxins, their promising future use as efficient bioinsecticides is discussed throughout this Perspective. Protein engineering and large-scale recombinant production are critical steps for the use of these PFPs as tools to control agriculturally important insect pests. In summary, both families of PFPs, from Cnidaria and Arachnida, appear to be molecules with promising biotechnological applications.
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Palacios-Ortega J, García-Linares S, Rivera-de-Torre E, Gavilanes JG, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á, Slotte JP. Sticholysin, Sphingomyelin, and Cholesterol: A Closer Look at a Tripartite Interaction. Biophys J 2019; 116:2253-2265. [PMID: 31146924 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2019.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Actinoporins are a group of soluble toxic proteins that bind to membranes containing sphingomyelin (SM) and oligomerize to form pores. Sticholysin II (StnII) is a member of the actinoporin family produced by Stichodactyla helianthus. Cholesterol (Chol) is known to enhance the activity of StnII. However, the molecular mechanisms behind this activation have remained obscure, although the activation is not Chol specific but rather sterol specific. To further explore how bilayer lipids affect or are affected by StnII, we have used a multiprobe approach (fluorescent analogs of both Chol and SM) in combination with a series of StnII tryptophan (Trp) mutants to study StnII/bilayer interactions. First, we compared StnII bilayer permeabilization in the presence of Chol or oleoyl-ceramide (OCer). The comparison was done because both Chol and OCer have a 1-hydroxyl, which helps to orient the molecule in the bilayer (although OCer has additional polar functional groups). Both Chol and OCer also have increased affinity for SM, which StnII may recognize. However, our results show that only Chol was able to activate StnII-induced bilayer permeabilization; OCer failed to activate it. To further examine possible Chol/StnII interactions, we measured Förster resonance energy transfer between Trp in StnII and cholestatrienol, a fluorescent analog of Chol. We could show higher Förster resonance energy transfer efficiency between cholestatrienol and Trps in position 100 and 114 of StnII when compared to three other Trp positions further away from the bilayer binding region of StnII. Taken together, our results suggest that StnII was able to attract Chol to its vicinity, maybe by showing affinity for Chol. SM interactions are known to be important for StnII binding to bilayers, and Chol is known to facilitate subsequent permeabilization of the bilayers by StnII. Our results help to better understand the role of these important membrane lipids for the bilayer properties of StnII.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Palacios-Ortega
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain; Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - J Peter Slotte
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland.
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Leychenko E, Isaeva M, Tkacheva E, Zelepuga E, Kvetkina A, Guzev K, Monastyrnaya M, Kozlovskaya E. Multigene Family of Pore-Forming Toxins from Sea Anemone Heteractis crispa. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:E183. [PMID: 29794988 PMCID: PMC6025637 DOI: 10.3390/md16060183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Revised: 05/21/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sea anemones produce pore-forming toxins, actinoporins, which are interesting as tools for cytoplasmic membranes study, as well as being potential therapeutic agents for cancer therapy. This investigation is devoted to structural and functional study of the Heteractis crispa actinoporins diversity. Here, we described a multigene family consisting of 47 representatives expressed in the sea anemone tentacles as prepropeptide-coding transcripts. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that actinoporin clustering is consistent with the division of sea anemones into superfamilies and families. The transcriptomes of both H. crispa and Heteractis magnifica appear to contain a large repertoire of similar genes representing a rapid expansion of the actinoporin family due to gene duplication and sequence divergence. The presence of the most abundant specific group of actinoporins in H. crispa is the major difference between these species. The functional analysis of six recombinant actinoporins revealed that H. crispa actinoporin grouping was consistent with the different hemolytic activity of their representatives. According to molecular modeling data, we assume that the direction of the N-terminal dipole moment tightly reflects the actinoporins' ability to possess hemolytic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Leychenko
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 159, Pr. 100 let Vladivostoku, Vladivostok 690022, Russia.
- School of Natural Sciences, Far Eastern Federal University, Sukhanova Street 8, Vladivostok 690091, Russia.
| | - Marina Isaeva
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 159, Pr. 100 let Vladivostoku, Vladivostok 690022, Russia.
- School of Natural Sciences, Far Eastern Federal University, Sukhanova Street 8, Vladivostok 690091, Russia.
| | - Ekaterina Tkacheva
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 159, Pr. 100 let Vladivostoku, Vladivostok 690022, Russia.
| | - Elena Zelepuga
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 159, Pr. 100 let Vladivostoku, Vladivostok 690022, Russia.
| | - Aleksandra Kvetkina
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 159, Pr. 100 let Vladivostoku, Vladivostok 690022, Russia.
| | - Konstantin Guzev
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 159, Pr. 100 let Vladivostoku, Vladivostok 690022, Russia.
| | - Margarita Monastyrnaya
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 159, Pr. 100 let Vladivostoku, Vladivostok 690022, Russia.
| | - Emma Kozlovskaya
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 159, Pr. 100 let Vladivostoku, Vladivostok 690022, Russia.
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14
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Rivera-de-Torre E, Palacios-Ortega J, García-Linares S, Gavilanes JG, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á. One single salt bridge explains the different cytolytic activities shown by actinoporins sticholysin I and II from the venom of Stichodactyla helianthus. Arch Biochem Biophys 2017; 636:79-89. [PMID: 29138096 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2017.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Revised: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 11/10/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Sticholysins I and II (StnI and StnII), α-pore forming toxins from the sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus, are water-soluble toxic proteins which upon interaction with lipid membranes of specific composition bind to the bilayer, extend and insert their N-terminal α-helix, and become oligomeric integral membrane structures. The result is a pore that leads to cell death by osmotic shock. StnI and StnII show 93% of sequence identity, but also different membrane pore-forming activities. The hydrophobicity profile along the first 18 residues revealed differences which were canceled by substituting StnI amino acids 2 and 9. Accordingly, the StnID9A mutant, and the corresponding StnIE2AD9A variant, showed enhanced hemolytic activity. They also revealed a key role for an exposed salt bridge between Asp9 and Lys68. This interaction is not possible in StnII but appears conserved in the other two well-characterized actinoporins, equinatoxin II and fragaceatoxin C. The StnII mutant A8D showed that this single replacement was enough to transform StnII into a version with impaired pore-forming activity. Overall, the results show the key importance of this salt bridge linking the N-terminal stretch to the β-sandwich core. A conclusion of general application for the understanding of salt bridges role in protein design, folding and stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esperanza Rivera-de-Torre
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan Palacios-Ortega
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Álvaro Martínez-Del-Pozo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
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15
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Babenko VV, Mikov AN, Manuvera VA, Anikanov NA, Kovalchuk SI, Andreev YA, Logashina YA, Kornilov DA, Manolov AI, Sanamyan NP, Sanamyan KE, Kostryukova ES, Kozlov SA, Grishin EV, Govorun VM, Lazarev VN. Identification of unusual peptides with new Cys frameworks in the venom of the cold-water sea anemone Cnidopus japonicus. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14534. [PMID: 29109403 PMCID: PMC5673964 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14961-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2015] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Sea anemones (Actiniaria) are intensely popular objects of study in venomics. Order Actiniaria includes more than 1,000 species, thus presenting almost unlimited opportunities for the discovery of novel biologically active molecules. The venoms of cold-water sea anemones are studied far less than the venoms of tropical sea anemones. In this work, we analysed the molecular venom composition of the cold-water sea anemone Cnidopus japonicus. Two sets of NGS data from two species revealed molecules belonging to a variety of structural classes, including neurotoxins, toxin-like molecules, linear polypeptides (Cys-free), enzymes, and cytolytics. High-throughput proteomic analyses identified 27 compounds that were present in the venoms. Some of the toxin-like polypeptides exhibited novel Cys frameworks. To characterise their function in the venom, we heterologously expressed 3 polypeptides with unusual Cys frameworks (designated CjTL7, CjTL8, and AnmTx Cj 1c-1) in E. coli. Toxicity tests revealed that the CjTL8 polypeptide displays strong crustacean-specific toxicity, while AnmTx Cj 1c-1 is toxic to both crustaceans and insects. Thus, an improved NGS data analysis algorithm assisted in the identification of toxins with unusual Cys frameworks showing no homology according to BLAST. Our study shows the advantage of combining omics analysis with functional tests for active polypeptide discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladislav V Babenko
- Federal Research and Clinical Centre of Physical-Chemical Medicine, Moscow, 119435, Russia.
| | - Alexander N Mikov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Moscow, 117997, Russia
| | - Valentin A Manuvera
- Federal Research and Clinical Centre of Physical-Chemical Medicine, Moscow, 119435, Russia
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (State University), Dolgoprudny, 141700, Russia
| | - Nickolay A Anikanov
- Federal Research and Clinical Centre of Physical-Chemical Medicine, Moscow, 119435, Russia
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Moscow, 117997, Russia
| | - Sergey I Kovalchuk
- Federal Research and Clinical Centre of Physical-Chemical Medicine, Moscow, 119435, Russia
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Moscow, 117997, Russia
| | - Yaroslav A Andreev
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Moscow, 117997, Russia
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Yulia A Logashina
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Moscow, 117997, Russia
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Daniil A Kornilov
- Federal Research and Clinical Centre of Physical-Chemical Medicine, Moscow, 119435, Russia
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (State University), Dolgoprudny, 141700, Russia
| | - Alexander I Manolov
- Federal Research and Clinical Centre of Physical-Chemical Medicine, Moscow, 119435, Russia
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (State University), Dolgoprudny, 141700, Russia
| | - Nadya P Sanamyan
- Kamchatka Branch of Pacific Geographical Institute, Far-Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683000, Russia
| | - Karen E Sanamyan
- Kamchatka Branch of Pacific Geographical Institute, Far-Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, 683000, Russia
| | - Elena S Kostryukova
- Federal Research and Clinical Centre of Physical-Chemical Medicine, Moscow, 119435, Russia
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (State University), Dolgoprudny, 141700, Russia
| | - Sergey A Kozlov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Moscow, 117997, Russia
| | - Eugene V Grishin
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Moscow, 117997, Russia
| | - Vadim M Govorun
- Federal Research and Clinical Centre of Physical-Chemical Medicine, Moscow, 119435, Russia
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Moscow, 117997, Russia
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (State University), Dolgoprudny, 141700, Russia
| | - Vassili N Lazarev
- Federal Research and Clinical Centre of Physical-Chemical Medicine, Moscow, 119435, Russia
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (State University), Dolgoprudny, 141700, Russia
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16
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Biophysical and biochemical strategies to understand membrane binding and pore formation by sticholysins, pore-forming proteins from a sea anemone. Biophys Rev 2017; 9:529-544. [PMID: 28853034 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-017-0316-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Actinoporins constitute a unique class of pore-forming toxins found in sea anemones that are able to bind and oligomerize in membranes, leading to cell swelling, impairment of ionic gradients and, eventually, to cell death. In this review we summarize the knowledge generated from the combination of biochemical and biophysical approaches to the study of sticholysins I and II (Sts, StI/II), two actinoporins largely characterized by the Center of Protein Studies at the University of Havana during the last 20 years. These approaches include strategies for understanding the toxin structure-function relationship, the protein-membrane association process leading to pore formation and the interaction of toxin with cells. The rational combination of experimental and theoretical tools have allowed unraveling, at least partially, of the complex mechanisms involved in toxin-membrane interaction and of the molecular pathways triggered upon this interaction. The study of actinoporins is important not only to gain an understanding of their biological roles in anemone venom but also to investigate basic molecular mechanisms of protein insertion into membranes, protein-lipid interactions and the modulation of protein conformation by lipid binding. A deeper knowledge of the basic molecular mechanisms involved in Sts-cell interaction, as described in this review, will support the current investigations conducted by our group which focus on the design of immunotoxins against tumor cells and antigen-releasing systems to cell cytosol as Sts-based vaccine platforms.
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17
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García-Linares S, Rivera-de-Torre E, Palacios-Ortega J, Gavilanes JG, Martínez-del-Pozo Á. The Metamorphic Transformation of a Water-Soluble Monomeric Protein Into an Oligomeric Transmembrane Pore. ADVANCES IN BIOMEMBRANES AND LIPID SELF-ASSEMBLY 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.abl.2017.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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18
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García-Linares S, Rivera-de-Torre E, Morante K, Tsumoto K, Caaveiro JMM, Gavilanes JG, Slotte JP, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á. Differential Effect of Membrane Composition on the Pore-Forming Ability of Four Different Sea Anemone Actinoporins. Biochemistry 2016; 55:6630-6641. [PMID: 27933793 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.6b01007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Sea anemone actinoporins constitute a protein family of multigene pore-forming toxins (PFT). Equinatoxin II (EqtII), fragaceatoxin C (FraC), and sticholysins I and II (StnI and StnII, respectively), produced by three different sea anemone species, are the only actinoporins whose molecular structures have been studied in depth. These four proteins show high sequence identities and practically coincident three-dimensional structures. However, their pore-forming activity can be quite different depending on the model lipid system employed, a feature that has not been systematically studied before. Therefore, the aim of this work was to evaluate and compare the influence of several distinct membrane conditions on their particular pore-forming behavior. Using a complex model membrane system, such as sheep erythrocytes, StnII showed hemolytic activity much higher than those of the other three actinoporins studied. In lipid model systems, pore-forming ability when assayed against 4:1 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC)/sphingomyelin (SM) vesicles, with the membrane binding being the rate-limiting step, decreased in the following order: StnI > StnII > EqtII > FraC. When using 1:1:1 DOPC/SM/cholesterol LUVs, the presence of Chol not only enhanced membrane binding affinities by ∼2 orders of magnitude but also revealed how StnII was much faster than the other three actinoporins in producing calcein release. This ability agrees with the proposal that explains this behavior in terms of their high sequence variability along their first 30 N-terminal residues. The influence of interfacial hydrogen bonding in SM- or dihydro-SM-containing bilayers was also shown to be a generalized feature of the four actinoporins studied. It is finally hypothesized that this observed variable ability could be explained as a consequence of their distinct specificities and/or membrane binding affinities. Eventually, this behavior can be modulated by the nature of their natural target membranes or the interaction with not yet characterized isotoxin forms from the same sea anemone species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Universidad Complutense , Madrid, Spain.,Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , Turku, Finland
| | | | - Koldo Morante
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo , 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Kouhei Tsumoto
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo , 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - Jose M M Caaveiro
- Department of Bioengineering, Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo , 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
| | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Universidad Complutense , Madrid, Spain
| | - J Peter Slotte
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , Turku, Finland
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19
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García-Linares S, Maula T, Rivera-de-Torre E, Gavilanes JG, Slotte JP, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á. Role of the Tryptophan Residues in the Specific Interaction of the Sea Anemone Stichodactyla helianthus's Actinoporin Sticholysin II with Biological Membranes. Biochemistry 2016; 55:6406-6420. [PMID: 27933775 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.6b00935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Actinoporins are pore-forming toxins from sea anemones. Upon interaction with sphingomyelin-containing bilayers, they become integral oligomeric membrane structures that form a pore. Sticholysin II from Stichodactyla helianthus contains five tryptophans located at strategic positions; its role has now been studied using different mutants. Results show that W43 and W115 play a determinant role in maintaining the high thermostability of the protein, while W146 provides specific interactions for protomer-protomer assembly. W110 and W114 sustain the hydrophobic effect, which is one of the major driving forces for membrane binding in the presence of Chol. However, in its absence, additional interactions with sphingomyelin are required. These conclusions were confirmed with two sphingomyelin analogues, one of which had impaired hydrogen bonding properties. The results obtained support actinoporins' Trp residues playing a major role in membrane recognition and binding, but their residues have an only minor influence on the diffusion and oligomerization steps needed to assemble a functional pore.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Universidad Complutense , Madrid, Spain.,Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , Turku, Finland
| | - Terhi Maula
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , Turku, Finland
| | | | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Universidad Complutense , Madrid, Spain
| | - J Peter Slotte
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , Turku, Finland
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20
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Rivera-de-Torre E, García-Linares S, Alegre-Cebollada J, Lacadena J, Gavilanes JG, Martínez-Del-Pozo Á. Synergistic Action of Actinoporin Isoforms from the Same Sea Anemone Species Assembled into Functionally Active Heteropores. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:14109-14119. [PMID: 27129251 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.710491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Among the toxic polypeptides secreted in the venom of sea anemones, actinoporins are the pore-forming toxins whose toxic activity relies on the formation of oligomeric pores within biological membranes. Intriguingly, actinoporins appear as multigene families that give rise to many protein isoforms in the same individual displaying high sequence identities but large functional differences. However, the evolutionary advantage of producing such similar isotoxins is not fully understood. Here, using sticholysins I and II (StnI and StnII) from the sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus, it is shown that actinoporin isoforms can potentiate each other's activity. Through hemolysis and calcein releasing assays, it is revealed that mixtures of StnI and StnII are more lytic than equivalent preparations of the corresponding isolated isoforms. It is then proposed that this synergy is due to the assembly of heteropores because (i) StnI and StnII can be chemically cross-linked at the membrane and (ii) the affinity of sticholysin mixtures for the membrane is increased with respect to any of them acting in isolation, as revealed by isothermal titration calorimetry experiments. These results help us understand the multigene nature of actinoporins and may be extended to other families of toxins that require oligomerization to exert toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esperanza Rivera-de-Torre
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid
| | - Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid
| | | | - Javier Lacadena
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid
| | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid.
| | - Álvaro Martínez-Del-Pozo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Facultades de Química y Biología, Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid.
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21
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Palacios-Ortega J, García-Linares S, Åstrand M, Al Sazzad MA, Gavilanes JG, Martínez-del-Pozo Á, Slotte JP. Regulation of Sticholysin II-Induced Pore Formation by Lipid Bilayer Composition, Phase State, and Interfacial Properties. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2016; 32:3476-3484. [PMID: 27003246 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b00082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Sticholysin II (StnII) is a pore-forming toxin that uses sphingomyelin (SM) as the recognition molecule in targeting membranes. After StnII monomers bind to SM, several toxin monomers act in concert to oligomerize into a functional pore. The regulation of StnII binding to SM, and the subsequent pore-formation process, is not fully understood. In this study, we examined how the biophysical properties of bilayers, originating from variations in the SM structure, from the presence of sterol species, or from the presence of increasingly polyunsaturated glycerophospholipids, affected StnII-induced pore formation. StnII-induced pore formation, as determined from calcein permeabilization, was fastest in the pure unsaturated SM bilayers. In 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC)/saturated SM bilayers (4:1 molar ratio), pore formation became slower as the chain length of the saturated SMs increased from 14 up to 24 carbons. In the POPC/palmitoyl-SM (16:0-SM) 4:1 bilayers, SM could not support pore formation by StnII if dimyristoyl-PC was included at 1:1 stoichiometry with 16:0-SM, suggesting that free clusters of SM were required for toxin binding and/or pore formation. Cholesterol and other sterols facilitated StnII-induced pore formation markedly, but the efficiency did not appear to correlate with the sterol structure. Benzyl alcohol was more efficient than sterols in enhancing the pore-formation process, suggesting that the effect on pore formation originated from alcohol-induced alteration of the hydrogen-bonding network in the SM-containing bilayers. Finally, we observed that pore formation by StnII was enhanced in the PC/16:0-SM 4:1 bilayers, in which the PC was increasingly unsaturated. We conclude that the physical state of bilayer lipids greatly affected pore formation by StnII. Phase boundaries were not required for pore formation, although SM in a gel state attenuated pore formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Palacios-Ortega
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Universidad Complutense , 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Sara García-Linares
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Universidad Complutense , 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Mia Åstrand
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - Md Abdullah Al Sazzad
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , 20500 Turku, Finland
| | - José G Gavilanes
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Universidad Complutense , 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Álvaro Martínez-del-Pozo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular I, Universidad Complutense , 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - J Peter Slotte
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University , 20500 Turku, Finland
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22
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Pore-forming toxins: Properties, diversity, and uses as tools to image sphingomyelin and ceramide phosphoethanolamine. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2015; 1858:576-92. [PMID: 26498396 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2015.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2015] [Revised: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Pore-forming toxins (PFTs) represent a unique class of highly specific lipid-binding proteins. The cytotoxicity of these compounds has been overcome through crystallographic structure and mutation studies, facilitating the development of non-toxic lipid probes. As a consequence, non-toxic PFTs have been utilized as highly specific probes to visualize the diversity and dynamics of lipid nanostructures in living and fixed cells. This review is focused on the application of PFTs and their non-toxic analogs as tools to visualize sphingomyelin and ceramide phosphoethanolamine, two major phosphosphingolipids in mammalian and insect cells, respectively. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Pore-Forming Toxins edited by Mauro Dalla Serra and Franco Gambale.
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23
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Pedrera L, Gomide AB, Sánchez RE, Ros U, Wilke N, Pazos F, Lanio ME, Itri R, Fanani ML, Alvarez C. The Presence of Sterols Favors Sticholysin I-Membrane Association and Pore Formation Regardless of Their Ability to Form Laterally Segregated Domains. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2015; 31:9911-9923. [PMID: 26273899 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b01687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Sticholysin I (St I) is a pore-forming toxin (PFT) produced by the Caribbean Sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus belonging to the actinoporin protein family, a unique class of eukaryotic PFT. As for actinoporins, it has been proposed that the presence of cholesterol (Chol) and the coexistence of lipid phases increase binding to the target membrane and pore-forming ability. However, little is known about the role of membrane structure and dynamics (phase state, fluidity, and the presence of lipid domains) on the activity of actinoporins or which regions of the membrane are the most favorable for protein insertion, oligomerization, and eventually pore formation. To gain insight into the role of membrane properties on the functional activity of St I, we studied its binding to monolayers and vesicles of phosphatidylcholine (PC), sphingomyelin (SM), and sterols inducing (ergosterol -Erg and cholesterol -Chol) or not (cholestenone - Cln) membrane phase segregation in liquid ordered (Lo) and liquid disordered (Ld) domains. This study revealed that St I binds and permeabilizes with higher efficiency sterol-containing membranes independently of their ability to form domains. We discuss the results in terms of the relevance of different membrane properties for the actinoporins mechanism of action, namely, molecular heterogeneity, specially potentiated in membranes with sterols inducers of phase separation (Chol or Erg) or Cln, a sterol noninducer of phase separation but with a high propensity to induce nonlamellar phase. The role of the Ld phase is pointed out as the most suitable platform for pore formation. In this regard, such regions in Chol-containing membranes seem to be the most favored due to its increased fluidity; this property promotes toxin insertion, diffusion, and oligomerization leading to pore formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lohans Pedrera
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas (CEP), Facultad de Biología, Universidad de la Habana , CP 10400, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Andreza B Gomide
- Departamento de Física Aplicada, Instituto de Física, Universidade de São Paulo , 05508090, São Paulo, Brasil
- Centro Universitário Padre Anchieta, Jundiaí , 13207270, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Rafael E Sánchez
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas (CEP), Facultad de Biología, Universidad de la Habana , CP 10400, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Uris Ros
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas (CEP), Facultad de Biología, Universidad de la Habana , CP 10400, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Natalia Wilke
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Centro de Investigaciones en Química Biológica de Córdoba (CIQUIBIC), Facultad de Ciencias Químicas-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba , X5000HUA Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Fabiola Pazos
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas (CEP), Facultad de Biología, Universidad de la Habana , CP 10400, La Habana, Cuba
| | - María E Lanio
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas (CEP), Facultad de Biología, Universidad de la Habana , CP 10400, La Habana, Cuba
| | - Rosangela Itri
- Departamento de Física Aplicada, Instituto de Física, Universidade de São Paulo , 05508090, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - María Laura Fanani
- Departamento de Química Biológica, Centro de Investigaciones en Química Biológica de Córdoba (CIQUIBIC), Facultad de Ciencias Químicas-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba , X5000HUA Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Carlos Alvarez
- Centro de Estudio de Proteínas (CEP), Facultad de Biología, Universidad de la Habana , CP 10400, La Habana, Cuba
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