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Henriksson A, Neubauer P, Birkholz M. Dielectrophoresis: An Approach to Increase Sensitivity, Reduce Response Time and to Suppress Nonspecific Binding in Biosensors? BIOSENSORS 2022; 12:784. [PMID: 36290922 PMCID: PMC9599301 DOI: 10.3390/bios12100784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The performance of receptor-based biosensors is often limited by either diffusion of the analyte causing unreasonable long assay times or a lack of specificity limiting the sensitivity due to the noise of nonspecific binding. Alternating current (AC) electrokinetics and its effect on biosensing is an increasing field of research dedicated to address this issue and can improve mass transfer of the analyte by electrothermal effects, electroosmosis, or dielectrophoresis (DEP). Accordingly, several works have shown improved sensitivity and lowered assay times by order of magnitude thanks to the improved mass transfer with these techniques. To realize high sensitivity in real samples with realistic sample matrix avoiding nonspecific binding is critical and the improved mass transfer should ideally be specific to the target analyte. In this paper we cover recent approaches to combine biosensors with DEP, which is the AC kinetic approach with the highest selectivity. We conclude that while associated with many challenges, for several applications the approach could be beneficial, especially if more work is dedicated to minimizing nonspecific bindings, for which DEP offers interesting perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Henriksson
- Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, Department of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Ackerstraße 76, 13355 Berlin, Germany
| | - Peter Neubauer
- Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, Department of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Ackerstraße 76, 13355 Berlin, Germany
| | - Mario Birkholz
- IHP—Leibniz-Institut für Innovative Mikroelektronik, Im Technologiepark 25, 15236 Frankfurt (Oder), Germany
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2
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Martinez-Duarte R, Mager D, Korvink JG, Islam M. Evaluating carbon-electrode dielectrophoresis under the ASSURED criteria. FRONTIERS IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY 2022; 4:922737. [PMID: 35958120 PMCID: PMC9360481 DOI: 10.3389/fmedt.2022.922737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Extreme point-of-care refers to medical testing in unfavorable conditions characterized by a lack of primary resources or infrastructure. As witnessed in the recent past, considerable interest in developing devices and technologies exists for extreme point-of-care applications, for which the World Health Organization has introduced a set of encouraging and regulating guidelines. These are referred to as the ASSURED criteria, an acronym for Affordable (A), Sensitive (S), Specific (S), User friendly (U), Rapid and Robust (R), Equipment-free (E), and Delivered (D). However, the current extreme point of care devices may require an intermediate sample preparation step for performing complex biomedical analysis, including the diagnosis of rare-cell diseases and early-stage detection of sepsis. This article assesses the potential of carbon-electrode dielectrophoresis (CarbonDEP) for sample preparation competent in extreme point-of-care, following the ASSURED criteria. We first discuss the theory and utility of dielectrophoresis (DEP) and the advantages of using carbon microelectrodes for this purpose. We then critically review the literature relevant to the use of CarbonDEP for bioparticle manipulation under the scope of the ASSURED criteria. Lastly, we offer a perspective on the roadmap needed to strengthen the use of CarbonDEP in extreme point-of-care applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Martinez-Duarte
- Multiscale Manufacturing Laboratory, Mechanical Engineering Department, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States
- *Correspondence: Rodrigo Martinez-Duarte
| | - Dario Mager
- Institute of Microstructure Technology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Jan G. Korvink
- Institute of Microstructure Technology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
- Jan G. Korvink
| | - Monsur Islam
- Institute of Microstructure Technology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
- Monsur Islam
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3
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Kale A, Malekanfard A, Xuan X. Analytical Guidelines for Designing Curvature-Induced Dielectrophoretic Particle Manipulation Systems. MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:E707. [PMID: 32708326 PMCID: PMC7407939 DOI: 10.3390/mi11070707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Curvature-induced dielectrophoresis (C-iDEP) is an established method of applying electrical energy gradients across curved microchannels to obtain a label-free manipulation of particles and cells. This method offers several advantages over the other DEP-based methods, such as increased chip area utilisation, simple fabrication, reduced susceptibility to Joule heating and reduced risk of electrolysis in the active region. Although C-iDEP systems have been extensively demonstrated to achieve focusing and separation of particles, a detailed mathematical analysis of the particle dynamics has not been reported yet. This work computationally confirms a fully analytical dimensionless study of the electric field-induced particle motion inside a circular arc microchannel, the simplest design of a C-iDEP system. Specifically, the analysis reveals that the design of a circular arc microchannel geometry for manipulating particles using an applied voltage is fully determined by three dimensionless parameters. Simple equations are established and numerically confirmed to predict the mutual relationships of the parameters for a comprehensive range of their practically relevant values, while ensuring design for safety. This work aims to serve as a starting point for microfluidics engineers and researchers to have a simple calculator-based guideline to develop C-iDEP particle manipulation systems specific to their applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akshay Kale
- Electrical Engineering Division, CAPE Building, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0FA, UK
| | - Amirreza Malekanfard
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA; (A.M.); (X.X.)
| | - Xiangchun Xuan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA; (A.M.); (X.X.)
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4
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Elitas M, Sengul E. Quantifying Heterogeneity According to Deformation of the U937 Monocytes and U937-Differentiated Macrophages Using 3D Carbon Dielectrophoresis in Microfluidics. MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:mi11060576. [PMID: 32521676 PMCID: PMC7345647 DOI: 10.3390/mi11060576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A variety of force fields have thus far been demonstrated to investigate electromechanical properties of cells in a microfluidic platform which, however, are mostly based on fluid shear stress and may potentially cause irreversible cell damage. This work presents dielectric movement and deformation measurements of U937 monocytes and U937-differentiated macrophages in a low conductive medium inside a 3D carbon electrode array. Here, monocytes exhibited a crossover frequency around 150 kHz and presented maximum deformation index at 400 kHz and minimum deformation index at 1 MHz frequencies at 20 Vpeak-peak. Although macrophages were differentiated from monocytes, their crossover frequency was lower than 50 kHz at 10 Vpeak-peak. The change of the deformation index for macrophages was more constant and lower than the monocyte cells. Both dielectric mobility and deformation spectra revealed significant differences between the dielectric responses of U937 monocytes and U937-differentiated macrophages, which share the same origin. This method can be used for label-free, specific, and sensitive single-cell characterization. Besides, damage of the cells by aggressive shear forces can, hence, be eliminated and cells can be used for downstream analysis. Our results showed that dielectric mobility and deformation have a great potential as an electromechanical biomarker to reliably characterize and distinguish differentiated cell populations from their progenitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meltem Elitas
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey;
- Sabanci University Nanotechnology Research and Application Center, Istanbul 34956, Turkey
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +90-538-810-2930
| | - Esra Sengul
- Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Sabanci University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey;
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5
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Characterization of the Dielectrophoretic Response of Different Candida Strains Using 3D Carbon Microelectrodes. MICROMACHINES 2020; 11:mi11030255. [PMID: 32121163 PMCID: PMC7143313 DOI: 10.3390/mi11030255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Revised: 02/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Bloodstream infection with Candida fungal cells remains one of the most life-threatening complications among hospitalized patients around the world. Although most of the cases are still due to Candida albicans, the rising incidence of infections caused by other Candida strains that may not respond to traditional anti-fungal treatments merits the development of a method for species-specific isolation of Candida. To this end, here we present the characterization of the dielectrophoresis (DEP) response of Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis and Candida parapsilosis. We complement such characterization with a study of the Candida cells morphology. The Candida strains exhibited subtle differences in their morphology and dimensions. All the Candida strains exhibited positive DEP in the range 10-500 kHz, although the strength of the DEP response was different for each Candida strain at different frequencies. Only Candida tropicalis showed positive DEP at 750 kHz. The current results show potential for manipulation and enrichment of a specific Candida strain at specific DEP conditions towards aiding in the rapid identification of Candida strains to enable the effective and timely treatment of Candida infections.
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Natu R, Islam M, Keck D, Martinez-Duarte R. Automated "pick and transfer" of targeted cells using dielectrophoresis. LAB ON A CHIP 2019; 19:2512-2525. [PMID: 31259984 DOI: 10.1039/c9lc00409b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Selective manipulation of single cells is an important step in sample preparation for biological analysis. A highly specific and automated device is desired for such an operation. An ideal device would be able to selectively pick several single cells in parallel from a heterogeneous population and transfer those to designated sites for further analysis without human intervention. The robotic manipulator developed here provides the basis for development of such a device. The device in this work is designed to selectively pick cells based on their inherent properties using dielectrophoresis (DEP) and automatically transfer and release those at a transfer site. Here we provide proof of concept of such a device and study the effect of different parameters on its operation. Successful experiments were conducted to separate Candida cells from a mixture with 10 μm latex particles and a viability assay was performed for separation of viable rat adipose stem cells (RASCs) from non-viable ones. The robotic DEP device was further used to pick and transfer single RASCs. This work also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of our current setup and illustrates the future steps required to improve the performance of this robotic DEP technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rucha Natu
- Multiscale Manufacturing Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, SC 29634, USA.
| | - Monsur Islam
- Multiscale Manufacturing Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, SC 29634, USA. and Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Microstructure Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Devin Keck
- Multiscale Manufacturing Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, SC 29634, USA.
| | - Rodrigo Martinez-Duarte
- Multiscale Manufacturing Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, SC 29634, USA.
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7
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Cascio M, Baroli D, Bordas S, Deretzis I, Falci G, Magliano A, La Magna A. Coupled molecular-dynamics and finite-element-method simulations for the kinetics of particles subjected to field-mediated forces. Phys Rev E 2019; 99:063307. [PMID: 31330610 DOI: 10.1103/physreve.99.063307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A computational approach that couples molecular-dynamics (MD) and the-finite-element-method (FEM) technique is here proposed for the theoretical study of the dynamics of particles subjected to electromechanical forces. The system consists of spherical particles (modeled as micrometric rigid bodies with proper densities and dielectric functions) suspended in a colloidal solution, which flows in a microfluidic channel in the presence of a generic nonuniform variable electric field generated by electrodes. The particles are subjected to external forces (e.g., drag or gravity) which satisfy a particlelike formulation that is typical of the MD approach, along with an electromechanical force that, in turn, requires the three-dimensional self-consistent solutions of correct continuum field equations during the integration of the equations of motion. In the MD-FEM method used in this work, the finite element method is applied to solve the continuum field equations while the MD technique is used for the stepwise explicit integration of the equations of motion. Our work shows the potential of coupled MD-FEM simulations for the study of electromechanical particles and opens a double perspective for implementing (a) MD away from the field of atomistic simulations and (b) the continuum-particle approach to cases where the conventional force evaluation used in MD is not applicable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Cascio
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 64, 95123 Catania, Italy
- CNR-IMM, Z.I. strada VIII 5, 95121 Catania, Italy
- INFN-Catania, Via S. Sofia 62, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Davide Baroli
- Institute of Computational Engineering, University of Luxembourg, Maison du Nombre 6, Avenue de la Fonte, L-4364 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Stephane Bordas
- Institute of Computational Engineering, University of Luxembourg, Maison du Nombre 6, Avenue de la Fonte, L-4364 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | | | - Giuseppe Falci
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 64, 95123 Catania, Italy
- INFN-Catania, Via S. Sofia 62, 95123 Catania, Italy
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Natu R, Islam M, Martinez-Duarte R. Nondimensional Streaming Dielectrophoresis Number for a System of Continuous Particle Separation. Anal Chem 2019; 91:4357-4367. [PMID: 30827100 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.8b04599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Cell sorting methods are required in numerous healthcare assays. Although flow cytometry and magnetically actuated sorting are widespread techniques for cell sorting, there is intense research on label-free techniques to reduce the cost and complexity of the process. Among label-free techniques, dielectrophoresis (DEP) offers the capability to separate cells not only on the basis of size but also on their membrane capacitance. This is important because it enables cell discrimination on the basis of specific traits such as viability, identity, fate, and age. StreamingDEP refers to the continuous sorting of cells thanks to the generation of streams of targeted particles by equilibrating the drag and DEP forces acting on targeted particles. In this work, we provide an analytical expression for a streamingDEP number toward enabling the a priori design of DEP devices to agglomerate targeted particles into streams. The nondimensional streamingDEP number (SDN) obtained in this analysis is applied to experiments with 1 μm polystyrene particles and Candida cells. On the basis of these experiments, three characteristic zones are mapped to different values of the SDN: (1) physical capture thanks to DEP for 0 < SDN < 0.6; (2) streaming due to DEP for 0.6 < SDN < 1; (3) elution without experiencing DEP for SDN > 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rucha Natu
- Multiscale Manufacturing Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering , Clemson University , Clemson , South Carolina 29634 , United States
| | - Monsur Islam
- Multiscale Manufacturing Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering , Clemson University , Clemson , South Carolina 29634 , United States
| | - Rodrigo Martinez-Duarte
- Multiscale Manufacturing Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering , Clemson University , Clemson , South Carolina 29634 , United States
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9
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Lapizco-Encinas BH. On the recent developments of insulator-based dielectrophoresis: A review. Electrophoresis 2018; 40:358-375. [PMID: 30112789 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201800285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Revised: 08/06/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Insulator-based dielectrophoresis (iDEP), also known as electrodeless DEP, has become a well-known dielectrophoretic technique, no longer viewed as a new methodology. Significant advances on iDEP have been reported during the last 15 years. This review article aims to summarize some of the most important findings on iDEP organized by the type of dielectrophoretic mode: streaming and trapping iDEP. The former is primarily used for particle sorting, while the latter has great capability for particle enrichment. The characteristics of a wide array of devices are discussed for each type of dielectrophoretic mode in order to present an overview of the distinct designs and applications developed with iDEP. A short section on Joule heating effects and electrothermal flow is also included to highlight some of the challenges in the utilization of iDEP systems. The significant progress on iDEP illustrates its potential for a large number of applications, ranging from bioanalysis to clinical and biomedical assessments. The present article discusses the work on iDEP by numerous research groups around the world, with the aim of proving the reader with an overview of the state-of-the-art in iDEP microfluidic systems.
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10
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Yildizhan Y, Gogebakan UB, Altay A, Islam M, Martinez-Duarte R, Elitas M. Quantitative Investigation for the Dielectrophoretic Effect of Fluorescent Dyes at Single-Cell Resolution. ACS OMEGA 2018; 3:7243-7246. [PMID: 30087910 PMCID: PMC6068594 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.8b00541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Most of the microscopy-based, quantitative assays rely on fluorescent dyes. In this study, we investigated the impact of fluorescent dyes on the dielectrophoretic response of the mammalian cells. The dielectrophoretic measurements were performed to quantify whether the fluorescent dyes alter the dielectrophoretic properties of the cells at single-cell resolution. Our results present that when 10 Vpp electric field is applied, the fluorescent-labeled cells experienced the crossover frequency at 8-10 kHz, whereas the label-free cells exhibited at 16-18 kHz.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yagmur Yildizhan
- Faculty
of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Sabanci
University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey
| | - Umut B. Gogebakan
- Faculty
of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Sabanci
University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey
| | - Alara Altay
- Faculty
of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Sabanci
University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey
| | - Monsur Islam
- Mechanical
Engineering Department, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634-0921, United States
| | - Rodrigo Martinez-Duarte
- Mechanical
Engineering Department, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634-0921, United States
| | - Meltem Elitas
- Faculty
of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Sabanci
University, Istanbul 34956, Turkey
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Kale A, Patel S, Xuan X. Three-Dimensional Reservoir-Based Dielectrophoresis (rDEP) for Enhanced Particle Enrichment. MICROMACHINES 2018; 9:E123. [PMID: 30424057 PMCID: PMC6187384 DOI: 10.3390/mi9030123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2018] [Revised: 02/24/2018] [Accepted: 03/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Selective enrichment of target species is crucial for a wide variety of engineering systems for improved performance of subsequent processes. Dielectrophoresis (DEP) is a powerful electrokinetic method that can be used to focus, trap, concentrate, and separate a variety of species in a label-free manner. The commonly employed methods for DEP suffer from limitations such as electrode fouling and high susceptibility to Joule heating effects. Recently, our group has demonstrated DEP-based manipulations of particles and cells using a novel method of reservoir-based dielectrophoresis (rDEP) which exploits the naturally produced electric field gradients at the reservoir-microchannel junction. Although this method reasonably addresses the limitations mentioned above while maintaining a high simplicity of fabrication, all of our demonstrations so far have used a two-dimensional rDEP, which limits the performance of the devices. This work aims to improve their performance further by making the DEP three-dimensional. Through detailed experimental and numerical analysis, we demonstrate a six-fold increase in the enrichment performance of latex beads and a significant reduction in the power consumption for the new devices, which would allow a more reliable integration of the same into micro-total analysis systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akshay Kale
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634-0921, USA.
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0AS, UK.
| | - Saurin Patel
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634-0921, USA.
| | - Xiangchun Xuan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634-0921, USA.
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12
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Gauthier V, Bolopion A, Gauthier M. Analytical Formulation of the Electric Field Induced by Electrode Arrays: Towards Automated Dielectrophoretic Cell Sorting. MICROMACHINES 2017; 8:E253. [PMID: 30400444 PMCID: PMC6189918 DOI: 10.3390/mi8080253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Revised: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 08/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Dielectrophoresis is defined as the motion of an electrically polarisable particle in a non-uniform electric field. Current dielectrophoretic devices enabling sorting of cells are mostly controlled in open-loop applying a predefined voltage on micro-electrodes. Closed-loop control of these devices would enable to get advanced functionalities and also more robust behavior. Currently, the numerical models of dielectrophoretic force are too complex to be used in real-time closed-loop control. The aim of this paper is to propose a new type of models usable in this framework. We propose an analytical model of the electric field based on Fourier series to compute the dielectrophoretic force produced by parallel electrode arrays. Indeed, this method provides an analytical expression of the electric potential which decouples the geometrical factors (parameter of our system), the voltages applied on electrodes (input of our system), and the position of the cells (output of our system). Considering the Newton laws on each cell, it enables to generate easily a dynamic model of the cell positions (output) function of the voltages on electrodes (input). This dynamic model of our system is required to design the future closed-loop control law. The predicted dielectrophoretic forces are compared to a numerical simulation based on finite element model using COMSOL software. The model presented in this paper enables to compute the dielectrophoretic force applied to a cell by an electrode array in a few tenths of milliseconds. This model could be consequently used in future works for closed-loop control of dielectrophoretic devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Gauthier
- FEMTO-ST Institute, AS2M Department, Univ Bourgogne Franche-Comté, CNRS, 24 rue Alain Savary, 25000 Besancon, France.
| | - Aude Bolopion
- FEMTO-ST Institute, AS2M Department, Univ Bourgogne Franche-Comté, CNRS, 24 rue Alain Savary, 25000 Besancon, France.
| | - Michaël Gauthier
- FEMTO-ST Institute, AS2M Department, Univ Bourgogne Franche-Comté, CNRS, 24 rue Alain Savary, 25000 Besancon, France.
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