1
|
Konecka E, Szymkowiak P. Wolbachia supergroup A in Enoplognatha latimana (Araneae: Theridiidae) in Poland as an example of possible horizontal transfer of bacteria. Sci Rep 2024; 14:7486. [PMID: 38553514 PMCID: PMC10980700 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-57701-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Wolbachia (phylum Pseudomonadota, class Alfaproteobacteria, order Rickettsiales, family Ehrlichiaceae) is a maternally inherited bacterial symbiont infecting more than half of arthropod species worldwide and constituting an important force in the evolution, biology, and ecology of invertebrate hosts. Our study contributes to the limited knowledge regarding the presence of intracellular symbiotic bacteria in spiders. Specifically, we investigated the occurrence of Wolbachia infection in the spider species Enoplognatha latimana Hippa and Oksala, 1982 (Araneae: Theridiidae) using a sample collected in north-western Poland. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of Wolbachia infection in E. latimana. A phylogeny based on the sequence analysis of multiple genes, including 16S rRNA, coxA, fbpA, ftsZ, gatB, gltA, groEL, hcpA, and wsp revealed that Wolbachia from the spider represented supergroup A and was related to bacterial endosymbionts discovered in other spider hosts, as well as insects of the orders Diptera and Hymenoptera. A sequence unique for Wolbachia supergroup A was detected for the ftsZ gene. The sequences of Wolbachia housekeeping genes have been deposited in publicly available databases and are an important source of molecular data for comparative studies. The etiology of Wolbachia infection in E. latimana is discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edyta Konecka
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6, 61-614, Poznań, Poland.
| | - Paweł Szymkowiak
- Department of Animal Taxonomy and Ecology, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6, 61-614, Poznań, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Cameirão C, Costa D, Rufino J, Pereira JA, Lino-Neto T, Baptista P. Diversity, Composition, and Specificity of the Philaenus spumarius Bacteriome. Microorganisms 2024; 12:298. [PMID: 38399702 PMCID: PMC10893442 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12020298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2023] [Revised: 01/27/2024] [Accepted: 01/28/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Philaenus spumarius (Linnaeus, 1758) (Hemiptera, Aphrophoridae) was recently classified as a pest due to its ability to act as a vector of the phytopathogen Xylella fastidiosa. This insect has been reported to harbour several symbiotic bacteria that play essential roles in P. spumarius health and fitness. However, the factors driving bacterial assemblages remain largely unexplored. Here, the bacteriome associated with different organs (head, abdomen, and genitalia) of males and females of P. spumarius was characterized using culturally dependent and independent methods and compared in terms of diversity and composition. The bacteriome of P. spumarius is enriched in Proteobacteria, Bacteroidota, and Actinobacteria phyla, as well as in Candidatus Sulcia and Cutibacterium genera. The most frequent isolates were Curtobacterium, Pseudomonas, and Rhizobiaceae sp.1. Males display a more diverse bacterial community than females, but no differences in diversity were found in distinct organs. However, the organ shapes the bacteriome structure more than sex, with the Microbacteriaceae family revealing a high level of organ specificity and the Blattabacteriaceae family showing a high level of sex specificity. Several symbiotic bacterial genera were identified in P. spumarius for the first time, including Rhodococcus, Citrobacter, Halomonas, Streptomyces, and Providencia. Differences in the bacterial composition within P. spumarius organs and sexes suggest an adaptation of bacteria to particular insect tissues, potentially shaped by their significance in the life and overall fitness of P. spumarius. Although more research on the bacteria of P. spumarius interactions is needed, such knowledge could help to develop specific bacterial-based insect management strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Cameirão
- Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal; (C.C.); (J.A.P.)
- Laboratório para a Sustentabilidade e Tecnologia em Regiões de Montanha, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal;
| | - Daniela Costa
- Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology (CBMA), Department of Biology, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; (D.C.); (T.L.-N.)
| | - José Rufino
- Laboratório para a Sustentabilidade e Tecnologia em Regiões de Montanha, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal;
- Research Centre in Digitalization and Intelligent Robotics (CeDRI), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
| | - José Alberto Pereira
- Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal; (C.C.); (J.A.P.)
- Laboratório para a Sustentabilidade e Tecnologia em Regiões de Montanha, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal;
| | - Teresa Lino-Neto
- Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology (CBMA), Department of Biology, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; (D.C.); (T.L.-N.)
| | - Paula Baptista
- Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal; (C.C.); (J.A.P.)
- Laboratório para a Sustentabilidade e Tecnologia em Regiões de Montanha, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal;
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Pascar J, Middleton H, Dorus S. Aedes aegypti microbiome composition covaries with the density of Wolbachia infection. MICROBIOME 2023; 11:255. [PMID: 37978413 PMCID: PMC10655336 DOI: 10.1186/s40168-023-01678-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Wolbachia is a widespread bacterial endosymbiont that can inhibit vector competency when stably transinfected into the mosquito, Aedes aegypti, a primary vector of the dengue virus (DENV) and other arboviruses. Although a complete mechanistic understanding of pathogen blocking is lacking, it is likely to involve host immunity induction and resource competition between Wolbachia and DENV, both of which may be impacted by microbiome composition. The potential impact of Wolbachia transinfection on host fitness is also of importance given the widespread release of mosquitos infected with the Drosophila melanogaster strain of Wolbachia (wMel) in wild populations. Here, population-level genomic data from Ae. aegypti was surveyed to establish the relationship between the density of wMel infection and the composition of the host microbiome. RESULTS Analysis of genomic data from 172 Ae. aegypti females across six populations resulted in an expanded and quantitatively refined, species-level characterization of the bacterial, archaeal, and fungal microbiome. This included 844 species of bacteria across 23 phyla, of which 54 species were found to be ubiquitous microbiome members across these populations. The density of wMel infection was highly variable between individuals and negatively correlated with microbiome diversity. Network analyses revealed wMel as a hub comprised solely of negative interactions with other bacterial species. This contrasted with the large and highly interconnected network of other microbiome species that may represent members of the midgut microbiome community in this population. CONCLUSION Our bioinformatic survey provided a species-level characterization of Ae. aegypti microbiome composition and variation. wMel load varied substantially across populations and individuals and, importantly, wMel was a major hub of a negative interactions across the microbiome. These interactions may be an inherent consequence of heightened pathogen blocking in densely infected individuals or, alternatively, may result from antagonistic Wolbachia-incompatible bacteria that could impede the efficacy of wMel as a biological control agent in future applications. The relationship between wMel infection variation and the microbiome warrants further investigation in the context of developing wMel as a multivalent control agent against other arboviruses. Video Abstract.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jane Pascar
- Center for Reproductive Evolution, Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Henry Middleton
- Center for Reproductive Evolution, Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Steve Dorus
- Center for Reproductive Evolution, Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Towett-Kirui S, Morrow JL, Close S, Royer JE, Riegler M. Bacterial Communities Are Less Diverse in a Strepsipteran Endoparasitoid than in Its Fruit Fly Hosts and Dominated by Wolbachia. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2023; 86:2120-2132. [PMID: 37103495 PMCID: PMC10497669 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-023-02218-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Microbiomes play vital roles in insect fitness and health and can be influenced by interactions between insects and their parasites. Many studies investigate the microbiome of free-living insects, whereas microbiomes of endoparasitoids and their interactions with parasitised insects are less explored. Due to their development in the constrained environment within a host, endoparasitoids are expected to have less diverse yet distinct microbiomes. We used high-throughput 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing to characterise the bacterial communities of Dipterophagus daci (Strepsiptera) and seven of its tephritid fruit fly host species. Bacterial communities of D. daci were less diverse and contained fewer taxa relative to the bacterial communities of the tephritid hosts. The strepsipteran's microbiome was dominated by Pseudomonadota (formerly Proteobacteria) (> 96%), mainly attributed to the presence of Wolbachia, with few other bacterial community members, indicative of an overall less diverse microbiome in D. daci. In contrast, a dominance of Wolbachia was not found in flies parasitised by early stages of D. daci nor unparasitised flies. Yet, early stages of D. daci parasitisation resulted in structural changes in the bacterial communities of parasitised flies. Furthermore, parasitisation with early stages of D. daci with Wolbachia was associated with a change in the relative abundance of some bacterial taxa relative to parasitisation with early stages of D. daci lacking Wolbachia. Our study is a first comprehensive characterisation of bacterial communities in a Strepsiptera species together with the more diverse bacterial communities of its hosts and reveals effects of concealed stages of parasitisation on host bacterial communities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sharon Towett-Kirui
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia
| | - Jennifer L Morrow
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia
| | - Shannon Close
- Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, EcoSciences Precinct, Boggo Road, Dutton Park, QLD, 4102, Australia
| | - Jane E Royer
- Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, EcoSciences Precinct, Boggo Road, Dutton Park, QLD, 4102, Australia
| | - Markus Riegler
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Guo W, Zhang M, Lin L, Zeng C, Zhang Y, He X. Bacterial Community Survey of Wolbachia-Infected Parthenogenetic Parasitoid Trichogramma pretiosum (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) Treated with Antibiotics and High Temperature. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24098448. [PMID: 37176154 PMCID: PMC10179479 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24098448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Wolbachia has been shown to induce thelytokous parthenogenesis in Trichogramma species, which have been widely used as biological control agents around the world. Little is known about the changes of bacterial community after restoring arrhenotokous or bisexual reproduction in the T. pretiosum. Here, we investigate the emergence of males of T. pretiosum through curing experiments (antibiotics and high temperature), crossing experiments, and high-throughput 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing (rRNA-seq). The results of curing experiments showed that both antibiotics and high temperatures could cause the thelytokous T. pretiosum to produce male offspring. Wolbachia was dominant in the thelytokous T. pretiosum bacterial community with 99.01% relative abundance. With the relative abundance of Wolbachia being depleted by antibiotics, the diversity and relative content of other endosymbiotic bacteria increased, and the reproductive mode reverted from thelytoky to arrhenotoky in T. pretiosum. Although antibiotics did not eliminate Wolbachia in T. pretiosum, sulfadiazine showed an advantage in restoring entirely arrhenotokous and successive bisexual reproduction. This study was the first to demonstrate the bacterial communities in parthenogenetic Trichogramma before and after antibiotics or high-temperature treatment. Our findings supported the hypothesis that Wolbachia titer-dependence drives a reproduction switch in T. pretiosum between thelytoky and arrhenotoky.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Guo
- Department of Entomology, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Meijiao Zhang
- Department of Entomology, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Liangguan Lin
- Department of Entomology, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Chenxu Zeng
- Department of Entomology, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yuping Zhang
- Institute of Plant Protection, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Xiaofang He
- Department of Entomology, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide Innovation and Application, Guangzhou 510642, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Detcharoen M, Jiggins FM, Schlick-Steiner BC, Steiner FM. Wolbachia endosymbiotic bacteria alter the gut microbiome in the fly Drosophila nigrosparsa. J Invertebr Pathol 2023; 198:107915. [PMID: 36958642 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2023.107915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 03/25/2023]
Abstract
Wolbachia are known to cause reproductive manipulations and in some arthropod species, Wolbachia were reported to cause changes in gut microbiome. However, the effects of Wolbachia bacteria on the microbiomes of their hosts, including Drosophila flies, have not been fully accessed. Here, we checked the bacterial microbiome in guts of Wolbachia-uninfected and of Wolbachia-infected Drosophila nigrosparsa, both separated into a bleach-only (embryos bleached) and a gnotobiotic (embryos bleached and inoculated with bacteria) treatment. We observed a clear separation between the Wolbachia-infected and the Wolbachia-uninfected samples, and the infected samples had higher variation in alpha diversity than the uninfected ones. There were reductions in the abundances of Proteobacteria (Pseudomonadota), especially Acetobacter, in the infected samples of both treatments. These findings highlight that Wolbachia change the gut microbiome in D. nigrosparsa as well as that the interactions between Wolbachia and bacteria like Acetobacter need to be investigated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matsapume Detcharoen
- Molecular Ecology Group, Department of Ecology, Universität Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria; Division of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Thailand.
| | | | | | - Florian M Steiner
- Molecular Ecology Group, Department of Ecology, Universität Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Theys C, Verheyen J, Delnat V, Janssens L, Tüzün N, Stoks R. Thermal and latitudinal patterns in pace-of-life traits are partly mediated by the gut microbiome. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 855:158829. [PMID: 36116637 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Revised: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The integration of life-history, physiological and behavioural traits into the pace-of-life generates a powerful framework to understand trait variation in nature both along environmental gradients and in response to environmental stressors. While the gut microbiome has been hypothesized as a candidate mechanism to underlie differentiation in the pace-of-life, this has been rarely studied. We investigated the role of the gut microbiome in contributing to the differentiation in pace-of-life and in thermal adaptation between populations of Ischnura elegans damselfly larvae inhabiting warmer low latitudes and colder high latitudes. We carried out a common-garden experiment, whereby we manipulated the exposure of the damselfly larvae to two key global warming factors: 4 °C warming and a 30 °C heat wave. Comparing the bacterial composition of the food source and the bacterioplankton indicated that damselfly larvae differentially take up bacteria from the surrounding environment and have a resident and functionally relevant microbiome. The gut microbiome differed between larvae of both latitudes, and this was associated with the host's latitudinal differentiation in activity, a key pace-of-life trait. Under heat wave exposure, the gut microbial community composition of high-latitude larvae converged towards that of the low-latitude larvae, with an increase in bacteria that likely are important in providing energy to cope with the heat wave. This suggests an adaptive latitude-specific shift in the gut microbiota matching the better ability of low-latitude hosts to deal with heat extremes. In general, our study provides evidence for the gut microbiome contributing to latitudinal differentiation in both the pace-of-life and in heat adaptation in natural populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Theys
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Stress Ecology and Ecotoxicology, University of Leuven, Charles Deberiotstraat 32, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Julie Verheyen
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Stress Ecology and Ecotoxicology, University of Leuven, Charles Deberiotstraat 32, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Vienna Delnat
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Stress Ecology and Ecotoxicology, University of Leuven, Charles Deberiotstraat 32, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lizanne Janssens
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Stress Ecology and Ecotoxicology, University of Leuven, Charles Deberiotstraat 32, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nedim Tüzün
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Stress Ecology and Ecotoxicology, University of Leuven, Charles Deberiotstraat 32, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium; Department of Evolutionary and Integrative Ecology, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Müggelseedamm 301, 12587 Berlin, Germany
| | - Robby Stoks
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Stress Ecology and Ecotoxicology, University of Leuven, Charles Deberiotstraat 32, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Sontowski R, Poeschl Y, Okamura Y, Vogel H, Guyomar C, Cortesero AM, van Dam NM. A high-quality functional genome assembly of Delia radicum L. (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) annotated from egg to adult. Mol Ecol Resour 2022; 22:1954-1971. [PMID: 35146928 DOI: 10.1111/1755-0998.13594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Belowground herbivores are overseen and underestimated, even though they can cause significant economic losses in agriculture. The cabbage root fly Delia radicum (Anthomyiidae) is a common pest in Brassica species, including agriculturally important crops, such as oilseed rape. The damage is caused by the larvae, which feed specifically on the taproots of Brassica plants until they pupate. The adults are aboveground-living generalists feeding on pollen and nectar. Female flies are attracted by chemical cues in Brassica plants for oviposition. An assembled and annotated genome can elucidate which genetic mechanisms underlie the adaptation of D. radicum to its host plants and their specific chemical defenses, in particular isothiocyanates. Therefore, we assembled, annotated and analyzed the D. radicum genome using a combination of different Next Generation Sequencing and bioinformatic approaches. We assembled a chromosome-level D. radicum genome using PacBio and Hi-C Illumina sequence data. Combining Canu and 3D-DNA genome assembler, we constructed a 1.3 Gbp genome with an N50 of 242 Mbp and 6 pseudo-chromosomes. To annotate the assembled D. radicum genome, we combined homology-, transcriptome- and ab initio-prediction approaches. In total, we annotated 13,618 genes that were predicted by at least two approaches. We analyzed egg, larval, pupal and adult transcriptomes in relation to life-stage specific molecular functions. This high-quality annotated genome of D. radicum is a first step to understanding the genetic mechanisms underlying host plant adaptation. As such, it will be an important resource to find novel and sustainable approaches to reduce crop losses to these pests.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rebekka Sontowski
- Molecular Interaction Ecology, German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Puschstraße 4, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.,Institute of Biodiversity, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Dornburger-Str. 159, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Yvonne Poeschl
- Institute of Biodiversity, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Dornburger-Str. 159, 07743, Jena, Germany.,Bioinformatics Unit, German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Puschstraße 4, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.,Institute of Computer Science, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Von-Seckendorff-Platz 1, 06120, Halle, Germany
| | - Yu Okamura
- Department of Insect Symbiosis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Str. 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Heiko Vogel
- Department of Insect Symbiosis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Str. 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Cervin Guyomar
- Bioinformatics Unit, German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Puschstraße 4, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.,GenPhySE, Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, 31326, Castanet Tolosan, France
| | | | - Nicole M van Dam
- Molecular Interaction Ecology, German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Puschstraße 4, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.,Institute of Biodiversity, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Dornburger-Str. 159, 07743, Jena, Germany
| |
Collapse
|