Norcoclaurine synthase: mechanism of an enantioselective pictet-spengler catalyzing enzyme

Enzyme Tunnel Dynamics and Catalytic Mechanism of Norcoclaurine Synthase: Insights from a Combined LiGaMD and DFT Study

This study conducts a systematic investigation into the catalytic mechanism of norcoclaurine synthase (NCS), a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of tetrahydroisoquinolines (THIQs) with therapeutic applications. By integration of LiGaMD and DFT calculations, the reaction pathway of NCS is mapped, providing detailed insights into its catalytic activity and selectivity. Our findings underscore the critical role of E103 in substrate capture and reveal the hitherto unappreciated influence of nonpolar residues M183 and L76 on tunnel dynamics. A prominent discovery is the identification of a high-energy barrier (44.2 kcal/mol) associated with the aromatic electrophilic attack, which pinpoints the rate-limiting step. Moreover, we disclose the existence of dual transition states leading to different products with the energetically favored six-membered ring formation consistent with experimental evidence. These mechanistic revelations not only refine our understanding of NCS but also advocate for a renewed emphasis on enzyme tunnel engineering for optimizing THIQs biosynthesis. The research sets the stage for translating these findings into practical enzyme modifications. Our results highlight the potential of NCS as a biocatalyst to overcome the limitations of current synthetic methodologies, such as low yields and environmental impacts, and provide a theoretical contribution to the efficient, eco-friendly production of THIQs-based pharmaceuticals.

Interfacing Whole Cell Biocatalysis with a Biocompatible Pictet-Spengler Reaction for One-Pot Syntheses of Tetrahydroisoquinolines and Tryptolines

Biocatalytic processes are highly selective and specific. However, their utility is limited by the comparatively narrow scope of enzyme-catalysed transformations. To expand product scope, we are developing biocompatible processes that combine biocatalytic reactions with chemo-catalysis in single-flask processes. Here, we show that a chemocatalysed Pictet-Spengler annulation can be interfaced with biocatalysed alcohol oxidation. This two-step, one-pot cascade reaction converts tyramine and aliphatic alcohols to tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids in aqueous buffer at mild pH. Tryptamine derivatives are also efficiently converted to tryptolines. Optimization of stoichiometry, pH, reaction time, and whole-cell catalyst deliver the tetrahydroisouinolines and tryptolines in >90 % and >40 % isolated yield, respectively, with excellent regioselectivity.

Uncovering the Mechanism of Azepino-Indole Skeleton Formation via Pictet-Spengler Reaction by Strictosidine Synthase: A Quantum Chemical Investigation

Strictosidine synthase (STR) catalyzes the Pictet-Spengler (PS) reaction of tryptamine and secologanin to produce strictosidine. Recent studies demonstrated that the enzyme can also catalyze the reaction of non-natural substrates to form new alkaloid skeletons. For example, the PS condensation of 1H-indole-4-ethanamine with secologanin could be promoted by the STR from Rauvolfia serpentina (RsSTR) to generate a rare class of skeletons with a seven-membered ring, namely azepino-[3,4,5-cd]-indoles, which are precursors for the synthesis of new compounds displaying antimalarial activity. In the present study, the detailed reaction mechanism of RsSTR-catalyzed formation of the rare seven-membered azepino-indole skeleton through the PS reaction was revealed at the atomic level by quantum chemical calculations. The structures of the transition states and intermediates involved in the reaction pathway were optimized, and the energetics of the complete reaction were analyzed. Based on our calculation results, the most likely pathway of the enzyme-catalyzed reaction was determined, and the rate-determining step of the reaction was clarified. The mechanistic details obtained in the present study are important in understanding the promiscuous activity of RsSTR in the formation of the rare azepino-indole skeleton molecule and are also helpful in designing STR enzymes for the synthesis of other new alkaloid skeleton molecules.

Machine learning discovery of missing links that mediate alternative branches to plant alkaloids

Engineering the microbial production of secondary metabolites is limited by the known reactions of correctly annotated enzymes. Therefore, the machine learning discovery of specialized enzymes offers great potential to expand the range of biosynthesis pathways. Benzylisoquinoline alkaloid production is a model example of metabolic engineering with potential to revolutionize the paradigm of sustainable biomanufacturing. Existing bacterial studies utilize a norlaudanosoline pathway, whereas plants contain a more stable norcoclaurine pathway, which is exploited in yeast. However, committed aromatic precursors are still produced using microbial enzymes that remain elusive in plants, and additional downstream missing links remain hidden within highly duplicated plant gene families. In the current study, machine learning is applied to predict and select plant missing link enzymes from homologous candidate sequences. Metabolomics-based characterization of the selected sequences reveals potential aromatic acetaldehyde synthases and phenylpyruvate decarboxylases in reconstructed plant gene-only benzylisoquinoline alkaloid pathways from tyrosine. Synergistic application of the aryl acetaldehyde producing enzymes results in enhanced benzylisoquinoline alkaloid production through hybrid norcoclaurine and norlaudanosoline pathways.

Producing plant secondary metabolites by microbes is limited by the known enzymatic reactions. Here, the authors apply machine learning to predict missing link enzymes of benzylisoquinoline alkaloid (BIA) biosynthesis in Papaver somniferum, and validate the specialized activities through heterologous production.

Living with a giant, flowering parasite: metabolic differences between Tetrastigma loheri Gagnep. (Vitaceae) shoots uninfected and infected with Rafflesia (Rafflesiaceae) and potential applications for propagation

Metabolites in Rafflesia-infected and non-infected Tetrastigma were compared which may have applications in Rafflesia propagation. Benzylisoquinoline alkaloids, here reported for the first time in Vitaceae, were abundant in non-infected shoots and may be a form of defense. In Rafflesia-infected shoots, oxylipins, which mediate immune response, were elevated. Endemic to the forests of Southeast Asia, Rafflesia (Rafflesiaceae) is a genus of holoparasitic plants producing the largest flowers in the world, yet completely dependent on its host, the tropical grape vine, Tetrastigma. Rafflesia species are threatened with extinction, making them an iconic symbol of plant conservation. Thus far, propagation has proved challenging, greatly decreasing efficacy of conservation efforts. This study compared the metabolites in the shoots of Rafflesia-infected and non-infected Tetrastigma loheri to examine how Rafflesia infection affects host metabolomics and elucidate the Rafflesia infection process. Results from LC-MS-based untargeted metabolomics analysis showed benzylisoquinoline alkaloids were naturally more abundant in non-infected shoots and are here reported for the first time in the genus Tetrastigma, and in the grape family, Vitaceae. These metabolites have been implicated in plant defense mechanisms and may prevent a Rafflesia infection. In Rafflesia-infected shoots, oxygenated fatty acids, or oxylipins, and a flavonoid, previously shown involved in plant immune response, were significantly elevated. This study provides a preliminary assessment of metabolites that differ between Rafflesia-infected and non-infected Tetrastigma hosts and may have applications in Rafflesia propagation to meet conservation goals.

Recent advances in biocatalysis of nitrogen-containing heterocycles

Nitrogen-containing heterocycles (N-heterocycles) are ubiquitous in both organisms and pharmaceutical products. Biocatalysts are providing green approaches for synthesizing various N-heterocycles under mild reaction conditions. This review summarizes the recent advances in the biocatalysis of N-heterocycles through the discovery and engineering of natural N-heterocycle synthetic pathway, and the design of artificial synthetic routes, with an emphasis on biocatalysts applied in retrosynthetic design for preparing complex N-heterocycles. Furthermore, this review discusses the future prospects and challenges of biocatalysts involved in the synthesis of N-heterocycles.

Biocatalysis: Enzymatic Synthesis for Industrial Applications

Biocatalysis has found numerous applications in various fields as an alternative to chemical catalysis. The use of enzymes in organic synthesis, especially to make chiral compounds for pharmaceuticals as well for the flavors and fragrance industry, are the most prominent examples. In addition, biocatalysts are used on a large scale to make specialty and even bulk chemicals. This review intends to give illustrative examples in this field with a special focus on scalable chemical production using enzymes. It also discusses the opportunities and limitations of enzymatic syntheses using distinct examples and provides an outlook on emerging enzyme classes.

The Pictet-Spengler Reaction Updates Its Habits

The Pictet-Spengler reaction (P-S) is one of the most direct, efficient, and variable synthetic method for the construction of privileged pharmacophores such as tetrahydro-isoquinolines (THIQs), tetrahydro-β-carbolines (THBCs), and polyheterocyclic frameworks. In the lustro (five-year period) following its centenary birthday, the P-S reaction did not exit the stage but it came up again on limelight with new features. This review focuses on the interesting results achieved in this period (2011-2015), analyzing the versatility of this reaction. Classic P-S was reported in the total synthesis of complex alkaloids, in combination with chiral catalysts as well as for the generation of libraries of compounds in medicinal chemistry. The P-S has been used also in tandem reactions, with the sequences including ring closing metathesis, isomerization, Michael addition, and Gold- or Brønsted acid-catalyzed N-acyliminium cyclization. Moreover, the combination of P-S reaction with Ugi multicomponent reaction has been exploited for the construction of highly complex polycyclic architectures in few steps and high yields. The P-S reaction has also been successfully employed in solid-phase synthesis, affording products with different structures, including peptidomimetics, synthetic heterocycles, and natural compounds. Finally, the enzymatic version of P-S has been reported for biosynthesis, biotransformations, and bioconjugations.

Perquinolines A-C: Unprecedented Bacterial Tetrahydroisoquinolines Involving an Intriguing Biosynthesis

Metabolic profiling of Streptomyces sp. IB2014/016-6 led to the identification of three new tetrahydroisoquinoline natural products, perquinolines A-C (1-3). Labelled precursor feeding studies and the cloning of the pqr biosynthetic gene cluster revealed that 1-3 are assembled by the action of several unusual enzymes. The biosynthesis starts with the condensation of succinyl-CoA and l-phenylalanine catalyzed by the amino-7-oxononanoate synthase-like enzyme PqrA, representing rare chemistry in natural product assembly. The second condensation and cyclization events are conducted by PqrG, an enzyme resembling an acyl-CoA ligase. Last, ATP-grasp RimK-type ligase PqrI completes the biosynthesis by transferring a γ-aminobutyric acid or β-alanine moiety. The discovered pathway represents a new route for assembling the tetrahydroisoquinoline cores of natural products.

One-pot chemoenzymatic synthesis of trolline and tetrahydroisoquinoline analogues

Chemoenzymatic reaction cascades can provide access to chiral compounds from low-cost starting materials in one pot. Here we describe one-pot asymmetric routes to tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids (THIAs) using the Pictet-Spenglerase norcoclaurine synthase (NCS) followed by a cyclisation, to give alkaloids with two new heterocyclic rings. These reactions operated with a high atom economy to generate THIAs in high yields.

Green Routes for the Production of Enantiopure Benzylisoquinoline Alkaloids

Benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs) are among the most important plant secondary metabolites, in that they include a number of biologically active substances widely employed as pharmaceuticals. Isolation of BIAs from their natural sources is an expensive and time-consuming procedure as they accumulate in very low levels in plant. Moreover, total synthesis is challenging due to the presence of stereogenic centers. In view of these considerations, green and scalable methods for BIA synthesis using fully enzymatic approaches are getting more and more attention. The aim of this paper is to review fully enzymatic strategies for producing the benzylisoquinoline central precursor, (S)-norcoclaurine and its derivatives. Specifically, we will detail the current status of synthesis of BIAs in microbial hosts as well as using isolated and recombinant enzymes.

Structural Evidence for the Dopamine-First Mechanism of Norcoclaurine Synthase

Norcoclaurine synthase (NCS) is a Pictet-Spenglerase that catalyzes the first key step in plant benzylisoquinoline alkaloid metabolism, a compound family that includes bioactive natural products such as morphine. The enzyme has also shown great potential as a biocatalyst for the formation of chiral isoquinolines. Here we present new high-resolution X-ray crystallography data describing Thalictrum flavum NCS bound to a mechanism-inspired ligand. The structure supports two key features of the NCS “dopamine-first” mechanism: the binding of dopamine catechol to Lys-122 and the position of the carbonyl substrate binding site at the active site entrance. The catalytically vital residue Glu-110 occupies a previously unobserved ligand-bound conformation that may be catalytically significant. The potential roles of inhibitory binding and alternative amino acid conformations in the mechanism have also been revealed. This work significantly advances our understanding of the NCS mechanism and will aid future efforts to engineer the substrate scope and catalytic properties of this useful biocatalyst.

Chiral Thioureas Promote Enantioselective Pictet-Spengler Cyclization by Stabilizing Every Intermediate and Transition State in the Carboxylic Acid-Catalyzed Reaction

An investigation of the mechanism of benzoic acid/thiourea co-catalysis in the asymmetric Pictet-Spengler reaction is reported. Kinetic, computational, and structure-activity relationship studies provide evidence that rearomatization via deprotonation of the pentahydro-β-carbolinium ion intermediate by a chiral thiourea·carboxylate complex is both rate- and enantioselectivity-determining. The thiourea catalyst induces rate acceleration over the background reaction mediated by benzoic acid alone by stabilizing every intermediate and transition state leading up to and including the final selectivity-determining step. Distortion-interaction analyses of the transition structures for deprotonation predicted using density functional theory indicate that differential π-π and C-H···π interactions within a scaffold organized by multiple hydrogen bonds dictate stereoselectivity. The principles underlying rate acceleration and enantiocontrol described herein are expected to have general implications for the design of selective transformations involving deprotonation of high-energy intermediates.

Transcriptome analyses provide insights into the difference of alkaloids biosynthesis in the Chinese goldthread (Coptis chinensis Franch.) from different biotopes

Coptis chinensis Franch., the Chinese goldthread (‘Weilian’ in Chinese), one of the most important medicinal plants from the family Ranunculaceae, and its rhizome has been widely used in Traditional Chinese Medicine for centuries. Here, we analyzed the chemical components and the transcriptome of the Chinese goldthread from three biotopes, including Zhenping, Zunyi and Shizhu. We built comprehensive, high-quality de novo transcriptome assemblies of the Chinese goldthread from short-read RNA-Sequencing data, obtaining 155,710 transcripts and 56,071 unigenes. More than 98.39% and 95.97% of core eukaryotic genes were found in the transcripts and unigenes respectively, indicating that this unigene set capture the majority of the coding genes. A total of 520,462, 493,718, and 507,247 heterozygous SNPs were identified in the three accessions from Zhenping, Zunyi, and Shizhu respectively, indicating high polymorphism in coding regions of the Chinese goldthread (∼1%). Chemical analyses of the rhizome identified six major components, including berberine, palmatine, coptisine, epiberberine, columbamine, and jatrorrhizine. Berberine has the highest concentrations, followed by coptisine, palmatine, and epiberberine sequentially for all the three accessions. The drug quality of the accession from Shizhu may be the highest among these accessions. Differential analyses of the transcriptome identified four pivotal candidate enzymes, including aspartate aminotransferaseprotein, polyphenol oxidase, primary-amine oxidase, and tyrosine decarboxylase, were significantly differentially expressed and may be responsible for the difference of alkaloids contents in the accessions from different biotopes.

Genes encoding norcoclaurine synthase occur as tandem fusions in the Papaveraceae

Norcoclaurine synthase (NCS) catalyzes the enantioselective Pictet-Spengler condensation of dopamine and 4-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde as the first step in benzylisoquinoline alkaloid (BIA) biosynthesis. NCS orthologs in available transcriptome databases were screened for variants that might improve the low yield of BIAs in engineered microorganisms. Databases for 21 BIA-producing species from four plant families yielded 33 assembled contigs with homology to characterized NCS genes. Predicted translation products generated from nine contigs consisted of two to five sequential repeats, each containing most of the sequence found in single-domain enzymes. Assembled contigs containing tandem domain repeats were detected only in members of the Papaveraceae family, including opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). Fourteen cDNAs were generated from 10 species, five of which encoded NCS orthologs with repeated domains. Functional analysis of corresponding recombinant proteins yielded six active NCS enzymes, including four containing either two, three or four repeated catalytic domains. Truncation of the first 25 N-terminal amino acids from the remaining polypeptides revealed two additional enzymes. Multiple catalytic domains correlated with a proportional increase in catalytic efficiency. Expression of NCS genes in Saccharomyces cereviseae also produced active enzymes. The metabolic conversion capacity of engineered yeast positively correlated with the number of repeated domains.

Asymmetric Synthesis of Isoquinoline Alkaloids: 2004-2015

In the past decade, the asymmetric synthesis of chiral nonracemic isoquinoline alkaloids, a family of natural products showing a wide range of structural diversity and biological and pharmaceutical activity, has been based either on continuation or improvement of known traditional methods or on new, recently developed, strategies. Both diastereoselective and enantioselective catalytic methods have been applied. This review describes the stereochemically modified traditional syntheses (the Pictet-Spengler, the Bischler-Napieralski, and the Pomeranz-Fritsch-Bobbitt) along with strategies based on closing of the nitrogen-containing ring B of the isoquinoline core by the formation of bonds between C₁-N₂, N₂-C₃, C₁-N₂/N₂-C₃, and C₁-N₂/C₄-C_4a atoms. Methods involving introduction of substituents at the C1 carbon of isoquinoline core along with syntheses applying various biocatalytic techniques have also been reviewed.

Protective effect of higenamine ameliorates collagen-induced arthritis through heme oxygenase-1 and PI3K/Akt/Nrf-2 signaling pathways

Existing in Ranunculaceae Aconitum and tomato, with the chemical name 1-phydroxybenzyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahy-droisoquinoline, higenamine is widely distributed in China. Higenamine's anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-apoptotic effects have been identified in previous studies. The present study attempted to determine the protective effect of higenamine against collagen-induced arthritis through heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and PI3K/Akt/Nrf-2 signaling pathways. A type II collagen (CII)-induced arthritis (CIA) model was established and clinical arthritis scores were used to appraise the curative effect of higenamine. Inflammatory reactions, oxidative damage and caspase-3/9 activation were detected using specific ELISA kits. In addition, western blotting was used to evaluate the expression of HO-1, Akt and Nrf-2 protein in CII-induced CIA mice. In CII-induced CIA mice, the clinical arthritis scores, inflammatory reactions, oxidation damage and caspase-3/9 activation were increased and activated. The results demonstrated that treatment with higenamine significantly reduced the elevation of clinical arthritis scores (P<0.01), and suppressed the promotion of inflammatory reactions, oxidation damage and caspase-3/9 activation. Furthermore, higenamine significantly increased HO-1 protein expression (P<0.01) and upregulated the PI3K/Akt/Nrf-2 signal pathway in CII-induced CIA mice. Collectively, it is concluded that higenamine protects against CII-induced CIA through the induction of HO-1 and the upregulation of the PI3K/Akt/Nrf-2 signaling pathway. In conclusion, higenamine may be a beneficial drug for protecting against CIA.

Occurrence of Enantioselectivity in Nature: The Case of (S)-Norcoclaurine

This review article is aimed at providing a monographic overview on (S)-norcoclaurine (NC) alkaloid from three diverse points of view, collected all together for the first time: 1) the synthetic one, where the compound is seen as a target chiral molecule to be obtained in the highest optical purity and as a starting point for the development of biocatalytic asymmetric syntheses of tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids; 2) the chromatographic one, which addresses the HPLC separation of the two NC enantiomers; and 3) the biochemical one, for which a thorough understanding of the topology and mechanism of action of norcoclaurine synthase (NCS) enzyme is still a matter of debate. Special emphasis on the most recent studies in the field is given by discussing the results published by the main research groups who are working on NC and NCS.

'Dopamine-first' mechanism enables the rational engineering of the norcoclaurine synthase aldehyde activity profile

Norcoclaurine synthase (NCS) (EC 4.2.1.78) catalyzes the Pictet–Spengler condensation of dopamine and an aldehyde, forming a substituted (S)-tetrahydroisoquinoline, a pharmaceutically important moiety. This unique activity has led to NCS being used for both in vitro biocatalysis and in vivo recombinant metabolism. Future engineering of NCS activity to enable the synthesis of diverse tetrahydroisoquinolines is dependent on an understanding of the NCS mechanism and kinetics. We assess two proposed mechanisms for NCS activity: (a) one based on the holo X-ray crystal structure and (b) the ‘dopamine-first’ mechanism based on computational docking. Thalictrum flavum NCS variant activities support the dopamine-first mechanism. Suppression of the non-enzymatic background reaction reveals novel kinetic parameters for NCS, showing it to act with low catalytic efficiency. This kinetic behaviour can account for the ineffectiveness of recombinant NCS in in vivo systems, and also suggests NCS may have an in planta role as a metabolic gatekeeper. The amino acid substitution L76A, situated in the proposed aldehyde binding site, results in the alteration of the enzyme's aldehyde activity profile. This both verifies the dopamine-first mechanism and demonstrates the potential for the rational engineering of NCS activity.

Benzylisoquinoline alkaloid metabolism: a century of discovery and a brave new world

Benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs) are a structurally diverse group of plant specialized metabolites with a long history of investigation. Although the ecophysiological functions of most BIAs are unknown, the medicinal properties of many compounds have been exploited for centuries. These include the narcotic analgesics codeine and morphine, the antimicrobial agents sanguinarine and berberine, and the antitussive and anticancer drug noscapine. BIA biosynthesis involves a restricted number of enzyme types that catalyze landmark coupling reactions and subsequent functional group modifications. A pathogenesis-related (PR)10/Bet v1 'Pictet-Spenglerase', several O-methyl-, N-methyl- and O-acetyltransferases, cytochromes P450, FAD-dependent oxidases, non-heme dioxygenases and NADPH-dependent reductases have been implicated in the multistep pathways leading to structurally diverse alkaloids. A small number of plant species, including opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) and other members of the Ranunculales, have emerged as model systems to study BIA metabolism. The expansion of resources to include a wider range of plant species is creating an opportunity to investigate previously uncharacterized BIA pathways. Contemporary knowledge of BIA metabolism reflects over a century of research coupled with the development of key innovations such as radioactive tracing, enzyme isolation and molecular cloning, and functional genomics approaches such as virus-induced gene silencing. Recently, the emergence of transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics has expedited the discovery of new BIA biosynthetic genes. The growing repository of BIA biosynthetic genes is providing the parts required to apply emerging synthetic biology platforms to the development of production systems in microbes as an alternative to plants as a commecial source of valuable BIAs.

Enantiomeric natural products: occurrence and biogenesis

In nature, chiral natural products are usually produced in optically pure form-however, occasionally both enantiomers are formed. These enantiomeric natural products can arise from a single species or from different genera and/or species. Extensive research has been carried out over the years in an attempt to understand the biogenesis of naturally occurring enantiomers; however, many fascinating puzzles and stereochemical anomalies still remain.

The Pictet-Spengler reaction in nature and in organic chemistry

Alkaloids are an important class of natural products that are widely distributed in nature and produced by a large variety of organisms. They have a wide spectrum of biological activity and for many years were used in folk medicine. These days, alkaloids also have numerous applications in medicine as therapeutic agents. The importance of these natural products in inspiring drug discovery programs is proven and, therefore, their continued synthesis is of significant interest. The condensation discovered by Pictet and Spengler is the most important method for the synthesis of alkaloid scaffolds. The power of this synthesis method has been convincingly proven in the construction of stereochemicaly and structurally complex alkaloids.

Norcoclaurine synthase is a member of the pathogenesis-related 10/Bet v1 protein family

Norcoclaurine synthase (NCS) catalyzes the first committed step in the biosynthesis of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids (BIAs). NCS from Thalictrum flavum (Tf NCS), Papaver somniferum (Ps NCS1 and Ps NCS2), and Coptis japonica (Cj PR10A) share substantial identity with pathogen-related 10 (PR10) and Bet v1 proteins, whose functions are not well understood. A distinct enzyme (Cj NCS1) with similarity to 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases was suggested as the bona fide NCS in C. japonica. Here, we validate the exclusive role of PR10/Bet v1-type NCS enzymes in BIA metabolism. Immunolocalization of Ps NCS2 revealed its cell type-specific occurrence in phloem sieve elements, which contain all other known BIA biosynthetic enzymes. In opium poppy, NCS transcripts and proteins were abundant in root and stem, but at low levels in leaf and carpel. Silencing of NCS in opium poppy profoundly reduced alkaloid levels compared with controls. Immunoprecipitation of NCS from total protein extracts of T. flavum cells resulted in a nearly complete attenuation of NCS activity. A Ps NCS2-green fluorescent protein fusion introduced by microprojectile bombardment into opium poppy cells initially localized to the endoplasmic reticulum but subsequently sorted to the vacuole. In our hands, Cj NCS1 did not catalyze the formation of (S)-norcoclaurine from dopamine and 4-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde.