Study on the spectrophotometric detection of free fatty acids in palm oil utilizing enzymatic reactions

Laboratory Ozonolysis Using an Integrated Batch-DIY Flow System for Renewable Material Production

Flow chemistry offers a solution for replacing batch methods in chemical preparation where intermediates or products may pose toxicity or instability hazards. Ozonolysis offers an ideal opportunity for flow chemistry solutions, but multiple barriers to entry exist for use of these methods, including equipment cost and performance optimization. To address these challenges, we developed a programmable DIY syringe pump system to use for a continuous flow multireactor process using 3D-printed parts, off-the-shelf stepper motors, and an Arduino microcontroller. Reaction kinetics of ozonide formation informed the use of an integrated batch-flow approach, where ozone addition to an olefin was timed to coincide with fluid movement of a single-syringe pump, followed by downstream Pinnick oxidation and reductive quench in flow. The system was demonstrated by continuous preparation of azelaic acid from ozonolysis of palmitoleic acid, a process limited to low production volumes via batch chemistry. High total production of azelaic acid with 80% yield was obtained from an algae oil sourced unsaturated fatty acid: a product with important applications in medicine, cosmetics, and polymers. This low-cost, scalable approach offers the potential for rapid prototyping and distributed chemical production.

Voltammetric determination of palmitic acid by electrode modified with reduced graphene oxide

Palm oil is one of the most produced and traded vegetable oils in the world recently. The quality of palm oil is very important to be examined and one of the quality indices is free fatty acid (FFA) content. Thus, in this study, an electrochemical technique for the determination of FFA as alternative to conventional method (titration method) has been explored. The electrochemical method was developed based on electrochemically reduced graphene oxide (rGO) deposited onto screen printed carbon electrode (SPCE) via drop-casting technique. The modified electrode was characterized by physico-chemical and electrochemical methods, respectively. The voltammetric behaviour of 2-methyl-1,4-naphthaquinone (VK₃) in the presence of palmitic acid at the modified electrode was investigated in an acetonitrile/water (3:1) mixture containing 2.5 M lithium perchlorate (LiClO₄). The electrochemical detection of palmitic acid was based on the voltammetric reduction of VK₃ to form corresponding hydroquinone which is proportional to the concentration of palmitic acid. Under optimum condition, the developed method showed a good linear relationship in the concentration ranging from 0.192 mM to 0.833 mM with the detection limit of 0.079 mM. The developed sensor illustrates high sensitivity and rapid detection towards determination of FFA content in palm oil.

Synthesis and characterization of biodegradable palm palmitic acid based bioplastic

This study involves the quantitative analysis of high free fatty acid crude palm oil, the separation of palmitic acid and synthesis of palm palmitic acid-based bioplastic. Synthesis of dimethyl 2-tetradecylmalonate (DMTDM) using methyl palmitate (MP) with sodium hydride (NaH) in the presence of reactive solvent of dimethyl carbonate (DMC) was carried out. The reaction conditions comprise at a mole ratio of MP: DMC: NaH: dimethylformamide (DMF) (0.1:2:0.25:1) at 60 °C for 14 h with 88.3 ± 1.4% yield. FTIR spectra of DMTDM showed the ester carbonyl group at 1740 cm^–1. The polymerization of DMTDM with 1,6-hexandiol or 1,12-dodecandiol was carried out using titanium (IV) isopropoxide Ti(OiPr)₄ as the catalyst and reaction time of 24 h. The results showed that the poly(dodecyl 2-tetradecylmalonte) (PDTDM) exhibited good thermal properties compared to poly(hexyl 2-tetradecylmalonte) (PHTDM). The increase of the chain length of diol in PDTDM improved the thermal properties of polyester with glass transition, T_g of 13 ºC and melting point of 51 ºC with a molecular weight of 12508 Da and polydispersity index (PDI) of 1.4. In general, the synthetic polyesters can be used as internalplasticizer in bio-based industry.

Preparation and characterization of ancient recipe of organic Lime Putty-Evaluation for its suitability in restoration of Padmanabhapuram Palace, India

The study aims at preparation and characterization of six organic lime putty (hydraulic Lime + fermented plant extract) using regionally available plants namely Terminalia Chebula (kadukkai), Rosa Sinensis (hibiscus), Palm jaggery (refined sugar), Xanthorrhoeaceae (aloe vera), and Indigofera Tinctoria (neelamari) as per the methods given in the ancient palm leaf of Padmanabhapuram Palace, India. Advanced analytical techniques like Gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC–MS), UV-Spectrophotometer and carbon dioxide quantification were used to study the fermented plant extracts and Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Field emission-scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) to study hydrated phases and microstructure of organic lime putty. GC–MS recorded the phytochemical compounds like fatty acids, traces of proteins, polysaccharides and carbohydrates. Fermented kadukkai and neelamari extracts reported as fatty acid, palm jaggery as carbohydrate, hibiscus as polysaccharide and aloevera rich in all the biomolecules. The detection limit of Quantification:0.013 and limit of detection:0.067 for polysaccharides, 0.026 and 0.088 for unsaturated fatty acids was reported through a U.V spectrophotometer for all the herbs. Aloevera and neelamari fermented extracts recorded the CO₂ release around 96,000 and 90,000 ppm on 4th day of fermentation, whereas for other herbs it ranged below the recorded readings. Supply of CO₂ has initiated the internal carbonation of the lime putty and precipitation of calcite in three different forms aragonite, calcite and vaterite minerals. The addition of organics resulted in high-intensity portlandite peaks and calcium carbonate polymorphs as reported in XRD graphs in agreement with FT-IR analysis. FESEM morphology validated the early formation of carbonate polymorphs, and EDX. has shown that kadukkai lime putty, jaggery lime putty and reference lime putty. mixes have calcium around 35–45%. From the overall results, 3% addition of eco-friendly biopolymers has altered the properties like setting time, water repellency and higher carbonation rate, which is the main reason behind longevity of the structure.

Geographical discrimination of palm oils (Elaeis guineensis) using quality characteristics and UV-visible spectroscopy

This preliminary study demonstrated the possibility of discriminating geographical origin of palm oils using conventional quality characteristics and UV-visible spectroscopy. A total of 60 samples, 20 from each region (North (N), South (S), and Central (C)) of Ondo State Nigeria, were analyzed for their quality characteristics and UV-visible spectra. Principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal projection to latent structure discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) were applied to elaborate the data. Models were built on the most informative portion of the spectra (250-550 nm) as: untreated (without pretreatment) and standard normal variate-second-derivative-treated (SNV+2der) data matrices. OPLS-DA classification models were validated by independent prediction sets and cross-validation. PCA score plots of both chemical and spectral data matrices revealed geographical distinction between the palm oil samples. Significantly high carotene content, free fatty acids, acid value, and peroxide value distinguished Central palm oils. K extinction values, color density, and chlorophyll content were the most important quality parameters separating North oil samples. In the discriminant models, over 95% and 85% percent correct classification were recorded for spectral and chemical data, respectively. These results cannot be considered exhaustive because of the limited sample size used. However, the study suggested a potential analytical technique suitable for geographical origin authentication of palm oils with additional advantages that include the following: speed, low cost, and minimal waste.