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Jiang L, Dumlao MC, Donald WA, Steel CC, Schmidtke LM. Rapid In-Field Volatile Sampling for Detection of Botrytis cinerea Infection in Wine Grapes. Molecules 2023; 28:5227. [PMID: 37446889 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28135227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Fungal infection of grape berries (Vitis vinifera) by Botrytis cinerea frequently coincides with harvest, impacting both the yield and quality of grape and wine products. A rapid and non-destructive method for identifying B. cinerea infection in grapes at an early stage prior to harvest is critical to manage loss. In this study, zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) crystal was applied as an absorbent material for volatile extraction from B. cinerea infected and healthy grapes in a vineyard, followed by thermal desorption gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The performance of ZIF-8 in regard to absorbing and trapping the targeted volatiles was evaluated with a standard solution of compounds and with a whole bunch of grapes enclosed in a glass container to maintain standard sampling conditions. The results from the sampling methods were then correlated to B. cinerea infection in grapes, as measured and determined by genus-specific antigen quantification. Trace levels of targeted compounds reported as markers of grape B. cinerea infection were successfully detected with in-field sampling. The peak area counts for volatiles 3-octanone, 1-octen-3-one, 3-octanol, and 1-octen-3-ol extracted using ZIF-8 were significantly higher than values achieved using Tenax®-TA from field testing and demonstrated good correlation with B. cinerea infection severities determined by B. cinerea antigen detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Jiang
- Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia
- The Australian Research Council Training Centre for Innovative Wine Production, University of Adelaide (Waite Campus), Urrbrae, SA 5064, Australia
- School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia
| | - Morphy C Dumlao
- Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia
- The Australian Research Council Training Centre for Innovative Wine Production, University of Adelaide (Waite Campus), Urrbrae, SA 5064, Australia
- School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - William A Donald
- School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Christopher C Steel
- Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia
- School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia
| | - Leigh M Schmidtke
- Gulbali Institute, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia
- The Australian Research Council Training Centre for Innovative Wine Production, University of Adelaide (Waite Campus), Urrbrae, SA 5064, Australia
- School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia
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Relationships between Volatile Organic Compounds Released by Wheat Plants Following Artificial Stress and Their Potential Influence on Natural Pest Management. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12157762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
There is an urgent need to establish new agro-technical practices that require the delivery of effective, natural, ecological, and verified solutions. The evaluation of possible applications in the field of cropping and farming in recent years has resulted in numerous products and approaches, which may potentially reduce our dependence on artificial pesticides. A major requirement to help establish these new agro-technical practices is to determine their efficiency. Here we present a study that investigates the relationship between volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released by Triticum sp. plants under two artificial stress conditions. We discuss their effectiveness in natural pest management and for use in monitoring crop health. Two varieties of spring wheat, “Kandela” and “Serenada”, were exposed to either mechanical (deliberate) wounding, to imitate the stress caused by insect attack, or exposure to methyl jasmonate, a defence volatile used by plants. Both stress factors caused an increased release of green leaf volatiles (C6 aldehydes and alcohols) and other volatile compounds, such as (E)-β-ocimene, linalool, β-caryophyllene, and (E)-β-farnesene. VOC emission rates are reported at three time points (24, 48, and 72 h) following a stress factor. Correlation coefficients between the emitted plant’s VOCs indicate the potential of monitoring just one single compound from the combination of volatiles emitted by plants to predict the overall condition of a crop. This has major implications for the development of a chemically specific and fieldable analytical sensor that could be used to provide an array of volatile monitoring stations delivering information continuously and in real-time. Finally, we demonstrate the effectiveness of the volatiles released by damaged spring wheat for pest management by exposing a shield bug (Bishop’s Mitre (Aelia acuminata L.), Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), to them.
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Sun Y, Peng C, Wang J, Guo S, Sun Z, Zhang H. Mesopic fermentation contributes more to the formation of important flavor compounds and increased growth of Lactobacillus casei Zhang than does high temperature during milk fermentation and storage. J Dairy Sci 2022; 105:4857-4867. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2021-20949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Peng C, Yao G, Sun Y, Guo S, Wang J, Mu X, Sun Z, Zhang H. Comparative effects of the single and binary probiotics of Lacticaseibacillus casei Zhang and Bifidobacterium lactis V9 on the growth and metabolomic profiles in yogurts. Food Res Int 2022; 152:110603. [PMID: 35181107 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, comparative effects of the single and binary probiotics of Lacticaseibacillus casei Zhang (L. casei Zhang) and Bifidobacterium lactis V9 (B. lactis V9) on the growth and metabolomic profiles during milk fermentation and storage has been analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The growth of B. lactis V9 can be significantly increased (p < 0.001) by co-cultivation with L. casei Zhang at the end of fermentation and storage 10 days, and valine, leucine and isoleucine biosynthesis may be a major contributor to the growth promotion of B. lactis V9. However, the growth of L. casei Zhang was not affected by co-cultivation with B. lactis V9. There were notable distinctions in volatile and non-volatile metabolomic profiles and pathways between the single and binary probiotics cultures; binary probiotics L. casei Zhang and B. lactis V9 significantly affected the volatile, non-volatile metabolic profiles compared to the single probiotics. The levels of acetic acid, hexanoic acid, butanoic acid and pentanoic acid were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in binary probiotics cultures compared to the single probiotic cultures at the storage 10 days, which indicates that binary probiotics had additive effects on the production of short-chain fatty acids during storage. This work provides a detailed insight into metabolomic profiles and growth that differ between the single and binary probiotics cultures, and it can be helpful to develop probiotic yogurt with high probiotic viability and distinct metabolomic profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuantao Peng
- Key Laboratory of Dairy Biotechnology and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China; Key Laboratory of Dairy Products Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China; Special Food Research Institute, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao 266109, China
| | - Guoqiang Yao
- Key Laboratory of Dairy Biotechnology and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China; Key Laboratory of Dairy Products Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China
| | - Yaru Sun
- Key Laboratory of Dairy Biotechnology and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China; Key Laboratory of Dairy Products Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China
| | - Shuai Guo
- Key Laboratory of Dairy Biotechnology and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China; Key Laboratory of Dairy Products Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China
| | - Jicheng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Dairy Biotechnology and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China; Key Laboratory of Dairy Products Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China
| | - XueFeng Mu
- Inner Mongolia Langge Dairy Co., Ltd., Hohhot 010018, China
| | - Zhihong Sun
- Key Laboratory of Dairy Biotechnology and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China; Key Laboratory of Dairy Products Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China
| | - Heping Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Dairy Biotechnology and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China; Key Laboratory of Dairy Products Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot 010018, China.
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Šikuten I, Štambuk P, Karoglan Kontić J, Maletić E, Tomaz I, Preiner D. Optimization of SPME-Arrow-GC/MS Method for Determination of Free and Bound Volatile Organic Compounds from Grape Skins. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26237409. [PMID: 34885990 PMCID: PMC8659239 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26237409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Solid phase microextraction (SPME)-Arrow is a new extraction technology recently employed in the analysis of volatiles in food materials. Grape volatile organic compounds (VOC) have a crucial role in the winemaking industry due to their sensory characteristics of wine.; (2) Methods: Box–Behnken experimental design and response surface methodology were used to optimise SPME-Arrow conditions (extraction temperature, incubation time, exposure time, desorption time). Analyzed VOCs were free VOCs directly from grape skins and bound VOCs released from grape skins by acid hydrolysis.; (3) Results: The most significant factors were extraction temperature and exposure time for both free and bound VOCs. For both factors, an increase in their values positively affected the extraction efficiency for almost all classes of VOCs. For free VOCs, the optimum extraction conditions are: extraction temperature 60 °C, incubation time 20 min, exposure time 49 min, and desorption time 7 min, while for the bound VOCs are: extraction temperature 60 °C, incubation time 20 min, exposure time 60 min, desorption time 7 min.; (4) Conclusions: Application of the optimized method provides a powerful tool in the analysis of major classes of volatile organic compounds from grape skins, which can be applied to a large number of samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iva Šikuten
- Department of Viticulture and Enology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia; (P.Š.); (J.K.K.); (E.M.); (I.T.); (D.P.)
- Centre of Excellence for Biodiversity and Molecular Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +385-01-4627977
| | - Petra Štambuk
- Department of Viticulture and Enology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia; (P.Š.); (J.K.K.); (E.M.); (I.T.); (D.P.)
- Centre of Excellence for Biodiversity and Molecular Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Jasminka Karoglan Kontić
- Department of Viticulture and Enology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia; (P.Š.); (J.K.K.); (E.M.); (I.T.); (D.P.)
- Centre of Excellence for Biodiversity and Molecular Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Edi Maletić
- Department of Viticulture and Enology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia; (P.Š.); (J.K.K.); (E.M.); (I.T.); (D.P.)
- Centre of Excellence for Biodiversity and Molecular Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ivana Tomaz
- Department of Viticulture and Enology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia; (P.Š.); (J.K.K.); (E.M.); (I.T.); (D.P.)
- Centre of Excellence for Biodiversity and Molecular Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Darko Preiner
- Department of Viticulture and Enology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia; (P.Š.); (J.K.K.); (E.M.); (I.T.); (D.P.)
- Centre of Excellence for Biodiversity and Molecular Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zagreb, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
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Prakash J, Arora NK. Novel metabolites from Bacillus safensis and their antifungal property against Alternaria alternata. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 2021; 114:1245-1258. [PMID: 34076810 DOI: 10.1007/s10482-021-01598-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria offer an effective and eco-sustainable solution to protect crops against phytopathogens. In the present study, Bacillus safensis STJP (NAIMCC-B-02323) from the rhizospheric soil of Stevia rebaudiana showed strong biocontrol activity against phytopathogen, Alternaria alternata. B. safensis STJP produced antifungal volatile organic compounds (AVOC). In the presence of AVOC, there was no conidia germination, mycelium growth was inhibited, and hyphae ruptured as observed by scanning electron microscopy. When mycelium of the fungus from bacterial treated plate was transferred into fresh potato dextrose agar plate, A. alternata could not grow. Extracted AVOC from B. safensis STJP were identified by thin-layer chromatography (TLC), Fourier-transform-infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and gas-chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). In total 25 bacterial metabolites were identified by GC-MS analysis having alcohol, alkane, phenol, alkyl halide and aromatic compounds. Five of these (phenol, 2,4-bis (1,1-dimethylethyl)-, 3-hexadecanol, pyrrolo(1,2-a)pyrazine-1,4-dione, hexahydro-3-(2-methylpropyl)-, 5,10-diethoxy-2,3,7,8-tetrahydro-1H,6H-dipyrrolo(1,2-a:1',2'-d)pyrazine and hexadecanoic acid) inhibited the mycelium growth, controlling spore formation and conidia germination of A. alternata. This study concluded that AVOC producing B. safensis can be used as a green-fungicide against A. alternata. Bacterial metabolites could pave the way for the development of next generation biopesticides. This can be a reliable technology to enhance the quality and reliability of biopesticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jai Prakash
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India
| | - Naveen Kumar Arora
- Department of Environmental Science, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Vidya Vihar, Raebareli Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226 025, India.
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Simultaneous Chemical and Sensory Analysis of Domestic Cat Urine and Feces with Headspace Solid-Phase Microextraction and GC-MS-Olfactometry. SEPARATIONS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/separations8020015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The association between humans and cats (Felis catus) is well known. This domestic animal is also known for its malodorous urine and feces. The complexity of the odorous urine and feces impacts human life by triggering the human sensory organ in a negative way. The objective of this research was to identify the volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) and associated odors in cat urine and feces using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry and simultaneous sensory analysis of fresh and aged samples. The solid-phase microextraction (SPME) technique was used to preconcentrate the VOCs emitted from urine or feces samples. Twenty-one compounds were identified as emitted from fresh urine, whereas 64 compounds were emitted from fresh feces. A contrasting temporal impact was observed in the emission of VOCs for urine and feces. On aging, the emission increased to 34 detected chemicals for stale urine, whereas only 12 chemicals were detected in stale feces. Not all compounds were malodorous; some compounds had a pleasant hedonic smell to the human nose. Although trimethylamine, low-molecular-weight organic acids, and ketones were contributors to the odor to some extent, phenolic compounds and aromatic heterocyclic organic N compounds generated the most intense odors and substantially contributed to the overall malodor, as observed by this study. This work might be useful to formulate cat urine and feces odor remediation approaches to reduce odor impacts.
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Cagliero C, Mastellone G, Marengo A, Bicchi C, Sgorbini B, Rubiolo P. Analytical strategies for in-vivo evaluation of plant volatile emissions - A review. Anal Chim Acta 2020; 1147:240-258. [PMID: 33485582 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2020.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) are metabolites emitted by living plants that have a fundamental ecological role since they influence atmospheric chemistry, plant communication and pollinator/herbivore behaviour, and human activities. Over the years, several strategies have been developed to isolate and identify them, and to take advantage of their activity. The main techniques used for in-vivo analyses include dynamic headspace (D-HS), static headspace (S-HS) and, more recently, direct contact (DC) methods in association with gas chromatography (GC) and mass spectrometry (MS). The aim of this review is to provide insight into the in-vivo characterisation of plant volatile emissions with a focus on sampling, analysis and possible applications. This review first provides a critical discussion of the challenges associated with conventional approaches and their limitations and advantages. Then, it describes a series of applications of in-vivo volatilomic studies to enhance how the information they provide impact on our knowledge of plant behaviour, including the effects of abiotic (damage, flooding, climate) and biotic (insect feeding) stress factors in relation to the plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Cagliero
- Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia Del Farmaco, Università Degli Studi di Torino, I, 10125, Turin, Italy.
| | - Giulia Mastellone
- Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia Del Farmaco, Università Degli Studi di Torino, I, 10125, Turin, Italy
| | - Arianna Marengo
- Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia Del Farmaco, Università Degli Studi di Torino, I, 10125, Turin, Italy
| | - Carlo Bicchi
- Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia Del Farmaco, Università Degli Studi di Torino, I, 10125, Turin, Italy
| | - Barbara Sgorbini
- Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia Del Farmaco, Università Degli Studi di Torino, I, 10125, Turin, Italy
| | - Patrizia Rubiolo
- Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia Del Farmaco, Università Degli Studi di Torino, I, 10125, Turin, Italy
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The effect of vacuum: an emerging experimental parameter to consider during headspace microextraction sampling. Anal Bioanal Chem 2020; 412:5989-5997. [PMID: 32524370 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-020-02738-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 05/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The effect of vacuum is an emerging experimental parameter to consider during optimization of a variety of headspace microextraction methodologies. The positive effect of vacuum was initially demonstrated for headspace solid-phase microextraction and was recently expanded to single-drop microextraction and higher capacity sorbents i.e. stir bar sorptive extraction. In all cases, sampling under vacuum greatly accelerated the extraction kinetics of analytes exhibiting long equilibration times under atmospheric pressure. At the same time, the extraction of analytes that reached equilibrium fast was not affected. In all optimized methods, extraction times were greatly reduced and/or sampling temperatures were lower to those reported with the standard methodology under atmospheric pressure. This work succinctly overviews the effect of vacuum on the different headspace microextraction technologies reported so far. The fundamental concepts describing the pressure dependence of each methodology are pulled together and presented in a simplified manner. The latest findings on the combined effects of vacuum and several selected experimental parameters typically examined during method optimization are then presented and the practical aspects of past outcomes are highlighted. The discussion also includes the air-evacuation step and the analysis of complex matrices. This article is intended for readers who are either new to the field of vacuum headspace microextraction sampling or its use and want to exploit this powerful approach. Graphical abstract.
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Lan H, Hartonen K, Riekkola ML. Miniaturised air sampling techniques for analysis of volatile organic compounds in air. Trends Analyt Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2020.115873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Abstract
In this research dataset, we summarize for the first time volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted in vivo from ripening wine grapes. We studied four cold-hardy cultivars grown in the Midwestern U.S.: St. Croix, Frontenac, Marquette, and La Crescent. These cultivars have gained popularity among local growers and winemakers, but still very little is known about their performance compared with long-established V. vinifera grapes. Volatiles were collected using two novel approaches: biogenic emissions from grape clusters on a vine and single grape berries. A third approach was headspace collection of volatiles from crushed grapes. Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) was used to collect volatiles. Vacuum-assisted SPME was used in the case of single grape berry. Collected VOCs were analyzed using separation and identification on a gas chromatograph mass spectrometer (GC-MS). More than 120 VOCs were identified using mass spectral libraries. The dataset provides evidence that detecting biogenic emissions from growing grapes is feasible. The dataset provides a record of temporal and spatial variability of VOCs, many of which could potentially impart aroma and flavor in the wine. The number of VOCs detected followed the order from single berry (the least) to crushed berry (the most). Thus, more information for potential use in harvesting in order to obtain the desired flavor is found in data from crushed grapes.
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