The Role of Autophagy in Anti-Cancer and Health Promoting Effects of Cordycepin

Application and research progress of cordycepin in the treatment of tumours (Review)

Cordycepin is a nucleoside molecule found in Cordyceps sinensis and can be obtained through chemical synthesis and biotransformation. Cordycepin has been extensively studied and has been shown to have antitumour activity. This activity includes effects on the autophagy process and inhibition of the MAPK/ERK and Hedgehog pathways. Ultimately, the inhibitory effect of cordycepin on tumour cells is due to the interplay of these effects. Cordycepin was shown to enhance the therapeutic effects of radiotherapy. There is increasing evidence indicating that cordycepin plays an anticancer role in the treatment of various cancers. The present review aims to provide a clear understanding of the antitumour mechanisms of cordycepin and discuss its present application in the treatment of tumours. This information can be an important theoretical basis and provide clinical guidance for the further development of cordycepin as an antitumour drug.

Structural and pharmacological insights into cordycepin for neoplasms and metabolic disorders

Cytotoxic adenosine analogues were among the earliest chemotherapeutic agents utilised in cancer treatment. Cordycepin, a natural derivative of adenosine discovered in the fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis, directly inhibits tumours not only by impeding biosynthesis, inducing apoptosis or autophagy, regulating the cell cycle, and curtailing tumour invasion and metastasis but also modulates the immune response within the tumour microenvironment. Furthermore, extensive research highlights cordycepin's significant therapeutic potential in alleviating hyperlipidaemia and regulating glucose metabolism. This review comprehensively analyses the structure-activity relationship of cordycepin and its analogues, outlines its pharmacokinetic properties, and strategies to enhance its bioavailability. Delving into the molecular biology, it explores the pharmacological mechanisms of cordycepin in tumour suppression and metabolic disorder treatment, thereby underscoring its immense potential in drug development within these domains and laying the groundwork for innovative treatment strategies.

Mechanism of Paris polyphylla saponin II inducing autophagic to inhibit angiogenesis of cervical cancer

Paris polyphylla saponin II (PPII) has good biological activity in inhibiting tumor angiogenesis. However, the mechanism of its action is still unclear. This study first observed the inhibitory effect of PPII on cervical cancer cells (Hela) through the establishment of MTT and nude mouse subcutaneous transplantation tumor models. Afterwards, then, we collected Hela cell supernatant for culturing HUVEC cells and treated it with PPII. Observe the invasion, migration, and lumen formation ability of drugs through Transwell, cell scratch test, and angiogenesis experiment. MDC staining was used to observe positive staining in the perinuclear area, AO staining was used to observe acidic areas, and transmission electron microscopy staining was used to observe ultrastructure and autophagy. In addition, the effects of PPII on autophagy- and angiogenesis-related protein expression were detected by Western blotting and quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. Finally, HUVECs were treated with autophagy inhibitors 3-MA, CQ, and PI3K inhibitor LY294002, respectively. The results showed that the autophagy level of cells treated with PPII was significantly increased. In addition, adding autophagy inhibitors can effectively inhibit angiogenesis in cervical cancer. Further research suggests that PPII induces autophagy in HUVEC cells by regulating the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway, thereby affecting angiogenesis and inhibiting Hela cell proliferation, lumen formation, invasion, and migration.

Cordycepin Inhibits Enterovirus A71 Replication and Protects Host Cell from Virus-Induced Cytotoxicity through Adenosine Action Pathway

Enterovirus A71 (EV-A71) infection typically causes mild illnesses, such as hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD), but occasionally leads to severe or fatal neurological complications in infants and young children. Currently, there is no specific antiviral treatment available for EV-A71 infection. Thus, the development of an effective anti-EV-A71 drug is required urgently. Cordycepin, a major bioactive compound found in Cordyceps fungus, has been reported to possess antiviral activity. However, its specific activity against EV-A71 is unknown. In this study, the potency and role of cordycepin treatment on EV-A71 infection were investigated. Results demonstrated that cordycepin treatment significantly reduced the viral load and viral ribonucleic acid (RNA) level in EV-A71-infected Vero cells. In addition, EV-A71-mediated cytotoxicity was significantly inhibited in the presence of cordycepin in a dose-dependent manner. The protective effect can also be extended to Caco-2 intestinal cells, as evidenced by the higher median tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50) values in the cordycepin-treated groups. Furthermore, cordycepin inhibited EV-A71 replication by acting on the adenosine pathway at the post-infection stage. Taken together, our findings reveal that cordycepin could be a potential antiviral candidate for the treatment of EV-A71 infection.

Research progress of natural active compounds on improving podocyte function to reduce proteinuria in diabetic kidney disease

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is a primary cause of end-stage renal disease. Proteinuria is a clinical indicator of the different stages of DKD, and podocyte injury is a major cause of proteinuria. Podocyte-specific proteins (PSPs) play important roles in the normal filtration of podocytes. Studies have shown that natural active compounds (NACs) can ameliorate proteinuria; however, the mechanism related to PSPs needs to be explored. In this study, the five stages of DKD related to proteinuria and the functions of PSPs are displayed separately. Mechanisms for ameliorating proteinuria and improving the PSPs of the 15 NACs are summarized. The in vitro and in vivo mechanistic research showed that five compounds, astragaloside IV, ligustrazine, berberine, emodin and resveratrol, exerted renal protective effects via AMPK signaling, icariin and berberine via TLR4 signaling, hirudin and baicalin via MAPK signaling, curcumin and baicalin via NF-κB signaling, and emodin via protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase signaling. The 13 PSPs were divided into five categories: actin cytoskeleton, basal domain, apical domain, slit diaphragm, and others. In conclusion, anti-inflammatory effects, anti-oxidative stress, and enhanced autophagy are the main mechanisms underlying the ameliorative effects of NACs. Podocyte apoptosis is mainly related to nephrin and podocin, which are the most studied slit diaphragm PSPs.

Pharmacological and therapeutic potentials of cordycepin in hematological malignancies

Hematological malignancies(HMs) are highly heterogeneous diseases with globally rising incidence. Despite major improvements in the management of HMs, conventional therapies have limited efficacy, and relapses with high mortality rates are still frequent. Cordycepin, a nucleoside analog extracted from Cordyceps species, represents a wide range of therapeutic effects, including anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and anti-metastatic activities. Cordycepin induces apoptosis in different subtypes of HMs by triggering adenosine receptors, death receptors, and several vital signaling pathways such as MAPK, ERK, PI3K, AKT, and GSK-3β/β-catenin. This review article summarizes the impact of utilizing cordycepin on HMs, and highlights its potential as a promising avenue for future cancer research based on evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies, as well as clinical trials.

Cordycepin: A review of strategies to improve the bioavailability and efficacy

Cordycepin is a bioactive compound extracted from Cordyceps militaris. As a natural antibiotic, cordycepin has a wide variety of pharmacological effects. Unfortunately, this highly effective natural antibiotic is proved to undergo rapid deamination by adenosine deaminase (ADA) in vivo and, as a consequence, its half-life is shortened and bioavailability is decreased. Therefore, it is of critical importance to work out ways to slow down the deamination so as to increase its bioavailability and efficacy. This study reviews recent researches on a series of aspects of cordycepin such as the bioactive molecule's pharmacological action, metabolism and transformation as well as the underlying mechanism, pharmacokinetics and, particularly, the methods for reducing the degradation to improve the bioavailability and efficacy. It is drawn that there are three methods that can be applied to improve the bioavailability and efficacy: to co-administrate an ADA inhibitor and cordycepin, to develop more effective derivatives via structural modification, and to apply new drug delivery systems. The new knowledge can help optimize the application of the highly potent natural antibiotic-cordycepin and develop novel therapeutic strategies.

Mechanism study of Cordyceps sinensis alleviates renal ischemia–reperfusion injury

Cordyceps sinensis (C. sinensis) is a kind of traditional Chinese medicine commonly used to protect renal function and relieve kidney injury. This study aimed to reveal the renal protective mechanism of C. sinensis in renal ischemia–reperfusion injury (RIRI). First, we obtained 8 active components and 99 common targets of C. sinensis against RIRI from public databases. Second, we have retrieved 38 core targets through STRING database analysis. Third, Gene Ontology analysis of 38 core targets is indicated that C. sinensis treatment RIRI may related hormone regulation, oxidative stress, cell proliferation, and immune regulation. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analysis of 38 core targets is indicated that C. sinensis treatment RIRI may involve in PI3K–Akt, HIF-1, and MAPK signaling pathways, as well as advanced glycation end product (AGE)–receptor for AGE (RAGE) signaling pathway in diabetic complications. Lastly, molecular docking was used to detect the binding activity and properties of active components and core target using molecular docking. And the results showed that eight active components of C. sinensis had low affinity with core targets. In conclusion, C. sinensis may improve RIRI by regulating oxidative stress and immunity through PI3K–Akt, HIF-1, and MAPK pathways.

The therapeutic potential of natural products for treating pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer is one of the most malignant tumors of the digestive tract, with the poor prognosis and low 5-year survival rate less than 10%. Although surgical resection and chemotherapy as gemcitabine (first-line treatment) has been applied to the pancreatic cancer patients, the overall survival rates of pancreatic cancer are quite low due to drug resistance. Therefore, it is of urgent need to develop alternative strategies for its treatment. In this review, we summarized the major herbal drugs and metabolites, including curcumin, triptolide, Panax Notoginseng Saponins and their metabolites etc. These compounds with antioxidant, anti-angiogenic and anti-metastatic activities can inhibit the progression and metastasis of pancreatic cancer. Expecting to provide comprehensive information of potential natural products, our review provides valuable information and strategies for pancreatic cancer treatment.

Cordycepin Inhibits Growth and Metastasis Formation of MDA-MB-231 Xenografts in Nude Mice by Modulating the Hedgehog Pathway

We previously found that cordycepin inhibits the growth and metastasis formation of MDA-MB-231 cells through the Hedgehog pathway but has not validated this in vivo. In this study, we confirmed cordycepin’s anti-triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) effect in nude mice and documented its mechanism. We found that cordycepin reduced the volume and weight of MDA-MB-231 xenografts and affected the expression of proliferation-, apoptosis-, epithelial–mesenchymal transition-, and matrix metalloproteinase-related proteins without side effects. RNA sequencing screening, pathway enrichment, and the protein network interaction analysis revealed enriched pathways and targets mainly concentrated on the Hedgehog pathway and its core components of SHH and GLI2. This indicates that the Hedgehog pathway plays a central role in the cordycepin-mediated regulation of growth and metastasis formation in TNBC. The database analysis of the Hedgehog pathway markers (SHH, PTCH1, SMO, GLI1, and GLI2) revealed that the Hedgehog pathway is activated in breast cancer tissues, and its high expression is not conducive to a patient’s survival. Finally, we verified that cordycepin effectively inhibited the Hedgehog pathway in TNBC through Western blotting and immunohistochemistry. This study found that cordycepin could regulate the growth and metastasis formation of TNBC through the Hedgehog pathway in vivo, which provides new insights for targeting and treating breast cancer.

Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking Analysis Explores the Mechanisms of Cordyceps sinensis in the Treatment of Oral Lichen Planus

Objective

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is the most common potentially malignant disorder of the oral cavity. This study aimed to investigate the mechanism of action of Cordyceps sinensis in the treatment of OLP and provides a theoretical support for improving current treatment regimens for OLP.

Methods

The active components and therapeutic targets of Cordyceps sinensis were predicted and screened using the TCMSP, SymMap, PubMed, HIT 2.0, and PharmMapper databases, while the relevant OLP targets were predicted and screened using the DisGeNET and GeneCards databases. Protein-protein interactions (PPI) were examined using the String database, and Cytoscape was used to combine and illustrate the findings. GO and KEGG pathway enrichment analyses were carried out using RStudio, and AutoDock Vina and Pymol were used for molecular docking and visualization, respectively.

Results

A total of 404 potential target genes were discovered after evaluating 21 active compounds from Cordyceps sinensis. Potential therapeutic targets included 67 targets that matched and overlapped with OLP, including TNF, IL-6, CD4, EGFR, and IL1B. Key targets were predominantly engaged in the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway and the MAPK signaling pathway, according to the GO and KEGG analyses. These targets have a connection to biological processes including apoptosis signaling pathway regulation, T cell activation, and oxidative stress response. The molecular docking results showed that TNF, IL-6, CD4, EGFR, and IL1B could bind to their corresponding active components.

Conclusions

Cordyceps sinensis contains multiple components and acts on multiple targets and multiple pathways. Particularly, Cordyceps sinensis targets TNF, IL-6, CD4, EGFR, and IL1B, regulates PI3K-Akt and MAPK signaling pathways, as well as takes part in biological processes including apoptosis, T cell activation, and oxidative stress. Cordyceps sinensis could be a crucial choice in the therapy of OLP.

Cordycepin Inhibits Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cell Migration and Invasion by Regulating EMT-TFs SLUG, TWIST1, SNAIL1, and ZEB1

Cancer metastasis is the most important cause of cancer-related death, and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) plays crucial roles in cancer metastasis. Cordycepin (CD) is highly enriched in the medicinally used Cordyceps mushroom. In this study, we conducted the antimetastatic activities of CD, specifically focusing on its regulatory effects on EMT-inducing transcription factors (EMT-TFs) in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Our study showed CD to inhibit the growth, migration, and invasion of BT549 and 4T1 cancer cell lines, by employing cell viability assay and real-time cell analyses. The protein levels of N-Cadherin and E-Cadherin, as well as their transcription factors TWIST1, SLUG, SNAIL1, and ZEB1 in BT549 and 4T1 cells, were estimated by Western blot assays. Results from dual-luciferase reporter assays demonstrated that CD is capable of inactivating the EMT signaling pathway by inhibiting TWIST1 and SLUG expression. Furthermore, in vivo studies with mice carrying cancer cell-derived allograft tumors showed the inhibitory effect of CD on cancer cell growth and metastasis. Furthermore, the additive/synergistic anti-metastasis effect of CD and thymoquinone (TQ), another natural product with promising anticancer roles, was demonstrated by combinational treatment. The results from this research indicate that CD would be a promising therapeutic molecule against TNBC by targeting EMT-TFs, possibly in SLUG, TWIST1, SNAIL1, and ZEB1.